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The ongoing trials of the light tank, system upgrade cum overhaul of T72 and the recent RFP to produce Future Ready Combat Vehicle (FRCV) have raised many eyebrows. Those professing the obituary of tanks and the exaggerated discourse on its suspect role in future battlespace lie disappointed and professionally misplaced.

The utility of a tank lies in its deployability, employability and capability to be the decisive force. Its optimisation lies in its inclusive role as an agile, lethal, and survivable platform to lead the combined arms team and attain combat overmatch across all spectrums of conflict. Thus, the need to understand the role, desired capabilities, and fleet management perspective.

The operational requirement is essentially based on medium-category tanks with light tanks supplementing its capabilities for marginal terrain like Northern borders. This remains the foundation of future operational and equipment construct.

Modernisation Fundamentals and Upgradation Construct

Modernisation fundamentals are foundational to the GSPS 2032 and fleet management perspective which is holistic, realistic and time sensitive. It is also based on prioritised and tiered modernisation based on value, vulnerability, and risk analysis with judicious scaling to address critical operational imperatives. It also looks at a more holistic and contemporary model of “Lethality, Survivability, Agility, Sustainability, Connectivity, and Affordability” based on the commonality of base platform and technology convergence. The focus on indigenous solutions to Indian warfighting remains paramount.

 The spiral approach to technology induction emphasizes prioritizing functional capabilities, combat effectiveness, and closing capability gaps with existing technologies. Balancing expansion, modernization and sustenance involves harmonising fiscal requirements, standardising platforms, and evaluating the cost-benefit of sustaining legacy equipment to decrease sustainment costs.

Planned upgrades and overhauls aim to extend tank life beyond 32 years, emphasising sub-system, system, and platform upgrades along with field fitment or medium repair or overall interventions. The emphasis is on a lead integrator and expanded facilities requiring careful planning of space, power, and weight (balance) management, during the design stage for ease of adaptability and timely cum short fitment cycle.

AFV Fleet Management Perspective – SUDRO Model

The endeavour to keep the tank fleet in a 30:40:30 profile guides the “Fleet Management Perspective”. The framework accordingly focuses on a balanced approach of sustaining the present fleet, modernisation of legacy fleet to contemporary standards and induction of next-generation platform in a time sensitive domain. It also aims at balancing fleet expansion and fleet modernization within pragmatic resource availability.

 The pillars of this perspective thus must rest on five key aspects; sustain the current fleet and address voids; upgrade legacy fleet to bridge technological gaps till replacement platforms; develop and induct next-generation state-of-the-art replacement platforms; replace obsolete and beyond service life equipment progressively; and optimize indigenous capability for induction through IDDM category.

Translating it entails life extension and periodic upgrades of T 72 to bring its technology capabilities as close to T90; T-90 medium repairs and modernisation upgrades to state-of-the-art technologies; and FRCV to replace beyond-life equipment which is negative to the cost-benefit of sustaining them.

Future Ready Combat Vehicle (FRCV)

The FRCV program amplifies the Indian Army’s push for a modern battle tank with a robust and flexible base platform that can be adopted into a multitude of specialised armoured fighting vehicles. FRCV will offer multiple options for rapid operational employment enabling the Indian Army to execute operations across the entire continuum of conflict against diverse threats of the adversaries.

The FRCV as the next generation main battle tank is to replace the vintage T-72 Tank Fleet (in service since 1979), which has progressively gone beyond its service life. While the initial fleet of T72 has been replaced by T90, the later production approx. 1770 tanks though upgraded, are not cost-effective to sustain and pose an operational risk due to obsolescence. Even if optimistically inducted in 2030, it will in all probability replace the balance T 72 fleet by around 2045. Thus, the time and operational expediency.

The FRCV was planned to be developed under the Make Project since 2008-09, however, its turbulent journey swayed from a de-novo three-stage turnkey project outside the DPP in 2015, to MAKE 1 under the new DPP 2016 evolved to SP (Strategic Partnership) model in 2017. Accordingly, commencing 2015 multiple RFI’s were floated by Service Headquarters, the last one being in 2024. While the May 2021 RFI was issued and ‘In Principle Approval’ given, the grant of AoN ( Acceptance of Necessity) by MoD is being expedited. The Indian Army is likely to issue a request for proposal (RFP) this year for a project of approximately Rs 57,000 crore to manufacture 1,770 future-ready combat vehicles (FRCVs) in India.

READ MORE: AVNL proposes infantry combat vehicle for Indian Army

DGMF have listed broad technical parameters under the project brief. The FRCVs, with a weight categorization of 55+/-10% with a high power-to-weight ratio of 27:1 HP/Ton, will have a crew of four. It will be equipped with cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), drone integration, survivability suites including active protection systems, state of art fire control system, battlefield management systems, beyond line-of-sight strike capability, advanced communication, state of art optoelectronics, vetronics and enhanced situational awareness. Additionally, features like manned-unmanned teaming capability and seamless integration into network-centric warfare environments will enhance the overall operational effectiveness index of the Indian Army (IA) by catering for emerging threats in varied terrain.

A main battle tank is a system of systems and is a fusion of apex technologies existing in the realm of land systems. Successful development under Make-I would result in acquisition, from a successful Development Agency (DA), through the ‘Buy (Indian-IDDM)’ category with indigenous design and Development and a minimum of 50% IC. The Ministry of Defence, GoI, intends to procure quantity 590 FRCV in the first phase.

The project for FRCV will provide a unique opportunity for the Indian Defence Industry to come together and help to build research and manufacturing capabilities to foster technological spinoffs benefitting a host of civil/dual-use applications.

The Light Tank

Recognizing the strategic importance of high-altitude operations, the Indian Army is acquiring an indigenous light tank engineered for agile manoeuvrability and high lethality with other state-of-the-art technologies dovetailed. It aims to counterbalance the capabilities demonstrated by the Chinese Type 15 ‘Black Panther’, a third-generation tank currently operational along the LAC in the Northern borders where T72 or T90 may be terrain restricted.

The broad employment concept of the light tank thus revolves around its superior mobility (strategic, operational, and tactical), versatility, enhanced manoeuvrability (small turning radius, high power-to-weight ratio, and low nominal ground pressure), and lethal firepower especially high angle fire cum missile firing ability supported by state of art electro-optronics, communication and multilayered survivability packaging. Its air portability and desired amphibious capability add to its operational matrix. Its availability would add teeth to limited offensive or quid pro quo operations into enemy territory. Thus, light tanks would add to the credible deterrence posture and warfighting capability in the Northern Front.

READ MORE: Future Ready Combat Vehicle and Light Tanks

Like FRCV light tanks too have had a turbulent history since the mid 1980’s of its approval. The Indian Light Tank (ILT) based on RFI of Apr 2021 has been accorded ‘Acceptance of Necessity (AoN)’ in Sep 2022 to be progressed under two routes – one is the design and development route, in which the DRDO, alongside the industry partner, is working on 59 tanks, and there is another 295, which is under the ‘Make I’ category which will be partially funded by the government as well as development partners. Named ‘Zorawar’, the tank has emerged from a collaborative effort between the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the private entity Larsen & Toubro (L&T). The development technical trials by the developer are underway and likely to be handed over for user trials end of 2024 or early 2025.

Conclusion

The approach to future capability building must be inclusive and not exclusive, based on the larger intent of prevailing in today’s war and generating indigenous capabilities to fight and win future wars. FRCV and  Light Tank program are key strategic enablers, which will generate desired capabilities and bridge the future operational mismatch against escalating threats, particularly on the Northern borders.

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The Indian Army has issued a tender to support its program for the restoration and life extension of in-service T-72 main battle tanks (MBTs). According to a request for information (RFI) issued by the Indian Army on November 21, the program – named ‘Overhaul II of Tank T-72‘ – is carried out to ensure restoration of the T-72 to “as good as new condition”.

The program seeks to “neutralise effects of age, usage, and restoration of T-72 to near-zero hour [and] zero km state of operational readiness”, the RFI said.

The T-72 restoration process comprises “stripping of the tank, removal of assemblies, stripping of the repairable assemblies, inspection of the components of repairable assemblies, and replacement of assemblies [that are not repairable] with new ones”, the RFI added.

The process also includes “100% replacement of parts that have limited shelf life such as gaskets, seals, rings, bearings, fasteners, washers, and so on; testing of assemblies; integration in tanks; and quality assurance”, the RFI said.

The program, according to the Indian Army, includes rectification of major/minor weld defects and worn-out portions of the T-72 hull; replacement or revalidation of rubber parts, metal pipes, and engine sub-assemblies; and replacement or revalidation of cooling, fuel, lubrication, air induction, exhaust, and transmission systems components.

Indigenisation of Ammunition

Rising conflicts globally have posed challenges and disrupted supply chains. The ongoing war in Ukraine and before that the Ladakh stand-off made it imperative that a clear road map for ammunition procurement and long –term requirement should be in place.

The efforts to secure supply chains and avoid any impact on operational preparedness has led to finalisation of the long-term requirement for a decade and a clear road map for ammunition procurement has been put in place. About 85% of the ammunition requirement has been indigenised, from both the public and private sectors.

The aim is to build up ammunition stocks to desired levels, minimise imports and achieve self-sufficiency in the country, have multiple sources of supply, and possess indigenous manufacturing capability. First step is to indigenise all import-dependent ammunition — major platforms with long-term requirement.

Indigenisation of more than 30 variants, amounting to about Rs 16,000 crores as part of import minimisation, is under way and five or six variants of ammunition have been identified for production through the Indian industry, which will expand the indigenous vendor base. Subsequently, next-generation high-tech ammunition based on research and development is being identified for in-house development.

Bulk of the ammunition is being met by the Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs) and the rest by the Indian industry. Less than 10% is met purely through direct imports and there is also some amount of legacy platforms in small numbers that are in the process of being phased out.

Under the three rounds of emergency financial powers granted by the Defence Ministry, the armed forces had undertaken major procurement and stocking of spares and ammunition. The fourth round of emergency procurement was completed recently and it ensured enough stocks of critical ammunition and also helped offset delays to some extent in deliveries of spares, components and ammunition since the war in Ukraine broke out in February 2022.

Most of the Indian Army’s armoured fleet is of Russian-origin and the air defence has several legacy systems. Currently, about 10 to 12 ammunition categories in over 30 variants are being indigenised on priority and these are undergoing field trials.

With several Indian private companies now in the race to manufacture ammunition in the country, the ammunition stocking through indigenisation efforts will help Army’s operational preparedness to meet future threats.

Pinaka Rockets for Rs 2800 Crore Approved

In a bid to augment the Indian Army’s arsenal, the Defence Ministry has approved a Rs 2,800 crore proposal for buying around 6,400 of two types of rockets for Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher systems, designated as Area Denial Munition Type-2 and Type-3.

The Indian Army will procure the rockets exclusively from indigenous sources and two main contenders include the Economic Explosives Limited of Solar Industries and the Munitions India Limited– a key ammunition-producer created by the corporatisation of the erstwhile Ordnance Factories.

The indigenous Pinaka weapon system has been developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation. The weapon system is one of the first few Indian military systems exported to foreign nations, including Armenia. Private sector companies Larsen & Toubro, Tata Defence and Economic Explosives Limited involved in the project have set up production lines for the Pinaka system that are being supplied in bulk to the armed forces.

The army has a requirement of 22 regiments of the Pinaka MBRL as part of larger artillery modernisation plans. Pinaka regiments of the Indian Army include launchers with automated gun aiming and positioning systems and command posts.

70,000 More Sig Sauer Assault Rifles

The defence ministry has approved the purchase of more than 70,000 Sig Sauer assault rifles, giving its personnel a significant increase in firepower for use in terrorist operations and other missions.

The purchase of over 70,000 of Sig Sauer assault rifles is estimated to cost over Rs 800 crore. The military originally decided to purchase these rifles because it desired a weapon with a greater range. Among a number of contenders, the SiG 716 assault rifle was selected due to its superior calibre and longer range. Additionally, it is said to be more deadly than the AK-47 and its variations in the service, as well as the INSAS rifle.

In February 2019, 72,400 SiG 716 rifles (7.62 x 51mm calibre) were purchased from SIG Sauer of the US; 66,400 of them were for the Army, 4,000 for the Air Force, and 2,000 for the Navy. The American-made assault guns, which are being deployed by personnel in the Kashmir valley and the Ladakh section of the China border, have already resulted in over 70,000 indictments by India.

To improve its conventional and anti-terrorist capabilities, the Indian troops have also received a sizable quantity of Russian AK-103s. The AK-203, which is now being made at an ordnance facility in Amethi, will also soon be available to the Indian troops.

Handheld Thermal Image Devices

The Indian Army is in the process to induct around 10,000 Hand Held Thermal Imager-Uncooled (HHTI-UC) devices, for which the Request for Information (RFI) has been issued.

As per the RFI sought from the vendors, it requires the “HHTI-UC with latest technology parameters to enable soldiers to carry out surveillance up to 3,000 metres.” The surveillance device should enable day and night surveillance with a combination of high-resolution optical viewer, digital (low light) and thermal (uncooled) sensors.

The surveillance device should facilitate judging distance of area under surveillance using laser range finders, acquisition of magnetic bearing using DMC and provide own location to users employing inbuilt satellite navigation systems, including NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation).

The surveillance device should weigh less than 3 kgs and facilitate recording and storage of minimum three hours of SD videos with removable storage devices. It should also enable seamless wired or wireless connectivity of minimum up to 50 metres with standard interfaces.

Once the vendors respond to the RFI, “Tentative date of issue of Request for Proposal (RFP) is June 2024. The total quantity required is approximately 10,000,” the RFI says. The procurement will be “in a phased manner, the desired quantity should be delivered within six months to twenty four months from the day of advance payment”.

The vendors should confirm in their response their capability of delivering requisite quantity of HHTI-UC within the stipulated time frame. Vendors are expected to forward the required documents and details by December 26 this year, the RFI said.

As per the RFI sought from the vendors, it requires the “HHTI-UC with latest technology parameters to enable soldiers to carry out surveillance up to 3,000 metres”. The surveillance device should facilitate judging distance of area under surveillance using laser range finders, it said.

AI-Enabled Gun-Mounted Scope

An indigenously-developed scope that can be fitted on any small weapon and turn it into a smart weapon is being tested by the Indian Army. The smart scope is powered by Artificial Intelligence that can detect humans up to 300 metres and also extensively boost border and close combat operations. Using AI algorithm and sensory data, it can tell the shooter when to fire. It had an 80-90% accuracy when tested for 100-300 metres

The smart scope is currently at its prototype stage, but a miniature version can be made too. The scope can help achieve one shot one hit capability and easily turn a soldier into a marksman. The scope first detects the target and makes a red bounding box, after which the camera checks for alignment using the laser and finder. Once the target box turns green, the shooter is alerted that he can fire.

The scope currently has only day firing capability, but it can be turned into night firing device too. The day camera has 50mm lens and 30X zoom.

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The High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) has been the most effective against Russian targets. HIMARS is a mobile, self-propelled artillery system that can fire a salvo of six rockets up to 80 kilometers away. The rockets are guided, meaning they can hit their targets with a high degree of accuracy. This makes HIMARS ideal for targeting Russian command centers, supply depots, and other critical infrastructure behind the front lines.

Since the arrival of HIMARS in Ukraine, the Ukrainian military has been able to inflict significant damage on the Russian military. In June 2023, for example, Ukrainian forces used HIMARS to destroy a Russian ammunition depot in the Donbas region.

HIMARS has also been credited with helping to turn the tide of the war in Ukraine. In the early stages of the war, the Russian military was able to make significant gains. However, the arrival of HIMARS has given the Ukrainian military the ability to strike back at the Russians from a distance forcing them to focus on defending their own positions.

Characteristics of HIMARS System

The HIMARS is a light multiple rocket launcher developed in the late 1990s for the United States Army. It is mounted on a standard United States Army Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) truck frame. The HIMARS carries one pod with either six Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System (GMLRS) rockets or one Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) missile. It is capable of launching all rockets specified in the Multiple Launch Rocket System Family of Munitions (MFOM).

Mobility: The HIMARS is mounted on a wheeled vehicle, which gives it a high degree of mobility. It can be transported by C-130 aircraft, which allows it to be rapidly deployed to any theater of operations.

Accuracy: The HIMARS can fire guided rockets with a high degree of accuracy against command centers, supply depots, and other critical infrastructure.

Range: The HIMARS can fire its rockets up to 80 kilometers away. This gives it the ability to strike enemy targets from a distance, which reduces the risk of its own forces being exposed to enemy fire.

Survivability: The HIMARS is a relatively small and lightly armored vehicle. However, it is equipped with a fire suppression system and other features that help to protect its crew from enemy fire.

The HIMARS system has been used in combat by the United States Army and Marine Corps in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Ukrainian Tanks

The most effective tank used by the Ukrainians against the Russians has been the T-72. The T-72 is a Soviet-era main battle tank that has been in service with the Ukrainian military since the 1970s. It is a relatively simple and reliable tank, and it is well-suited for the conditions in Ukraine.

The T-72 has been upgraded by the Ukrainians with a number of features, including improved armor, a new fire control system, and a more powerful gun. These upgrades have made the T-72 a more effective tank against the Russian T-72s and T-80s.

In addition to the T-72, the Ukrainians have also used other tanks, such as the T-64 and the T-80, against the Russians. However, the T-72 has been the most effective tank used by the Ukrainians.

Here are some of the reasons why the T-72 has been so effective against the Russians:

Numbers: The Ukrainians have a large number of T-72s in their inventory. This means that they have a lot of tanks to throw at the Russians.

Reliance on old technology: The Russians have relied on older technology in their tanks, such as the T-72. This has made them vulnerable to the newer Ukrainian tanks, such as the T-72M1R.

Tactics: The Ukrainians have been using the T-72s effectively in combined arms operations. This means that they have been using the tanks in conjunction with other weapons systems, such as artillery and infantry, to achieve success.

Characteristics of T-72 Tank

The T-72 has been upgraded by the Ukrainians with a number of features, including improved armor, a new fire control system, and a more powerful gun. These upgrades have made the T-72 a more effective tank against the Russian T-72s and T-80s.

Armor: The T-72 has a well-sloped armor that provides good protection against enemy fire. The armor is made up of steel and composite materials, and it is designed to defeat HEAT, APFSDS, and HE rounds.

Armament: The T-72 is armed with a 125mm smoothbore gun that can fire a variety of ammunition, including HEAT, APFSDS, and HE rounds. The gun is mounted in a turret that can rotate 360 degrees.

Fire control system: The T-72 is equipped with a fire control system that includes a laser range finder, a thermal sight, and a ballistic computer. This system allows the tank to engage targets accurately at long range.

Engine: The T-72 is powered by a V-12 diesel engine that produces 780 horsepower. This engine gives the tank a top speed of 50 kilometers per hour and an operational range of 450 kilometers.

Crew: The T-72 is crewed by three people: a commander, a gunner, and a driver. The commander is responsible for commanding the tank and directing the fire of the gun. The gunner is responsible for firing the gun and operating the fire control system. The driver is responsible for driving the tank and operating the engine.

Ukrainian Anti tank Weapons

The most effective Ukrainian anti-tank weapon against Russians has been the Javelin. The Javelin is a portable, fire-and-forget anti-tank missile system that can be used by a single soldier. It is guided by infrared, meaning that it can lock onto and pursue a moving target up to 4 kilometers away. The Javelin has a tandem warhead that can penetrate even the most heavily armored tanks.

The Javelin has been used to great effect by the Ukrainians against the Russians. In the early stages of the war, the Javelin was credited with helping to slow the Russian advance. More recently, the Javelin has been used to destroy Russian tanks and other armored vehicles in the Donbas region.

Other effective Ukrainian anti-tank weapons include the Stugna-P and the NLAW. These weapons have also been used to great effect against Russian tanks and other armored vehicles.

Characteristics of Javelin ATGM System

The Javelin is a portable, fire-and-forget system that is easy to use and can be operated by a single soldier. The Javelin has a tandem warhead that can penetrate even the most heavily armored tanks. It weighs 22 kgs and has a max range of 4 kms. It has high accuracy with IR guidance.

Fighter Jets

The Ukrainian Air Force has two main fighter jets: the MiG-29 Fulcrum and the Su-27 Flanker. Both of these jets have performed well against the Russians, but the MiG-29 has been particularly effective.

The MiG-29 is a lightweight fighter jet that is well-suited for close-quarters combat. It is also relatively maneuverable, which makes it difficult for Russian jets to shoot down.

The Su-27 is a larger and more powerful fighter jet than the MiG-29. It is also more heavily armed, with a larger cannon and more missile hardpoints. However, the Su-27 is not as maneuverable as the MiG-29, which makes it more vulnerable to Russian air attacks.

Ukrainian Arsenal at the Start of the War

Some of the key Ukrainian land weapon systems at the start of the war included:

Main Battle Tanks (MBTs): Ukraine operates several types of MBTs, including the T-84 and its variants.

Artillery: Self-propelled howitzers like the 2S3 Akatsiya and 2S1 Gvozdika, multiple rocket launchers like the BM-27 Uragan, and towed artillery pieces.

Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs): ATGMs like the Skif, Korsar, and Stugna-P to engage armored vehicles at longer ranges.

Infantry Fighting Vehicles (IFVs): IFVs like the BMP-2 and BMP-1.

Fighters, Bombers, and Helicopters

The Ukrainian Armed Forces operate a variety of fighter aircraft, bombers, and helicopters. Here are some of the main platforms used by Ukraine at that time:

Fighter Aircraft:

Sukhoi Su-27: A twin-engine air superiority fighter.

Mikoyan MiG-29: A multirole fighter for air-to-air and air-to-ground missions.

Sukhoi Su-24: A variable-sweep wing bomber with a secondary air-to-air capability.

Bombers:

Sukhoi Su-24: In addition to its role as a fighter, the Su-24 can also perform bombing missions.

Sukhoi Su-25: A close air support and ground attack aircraft primarily used for targeting enemy ground forces.

Helicopters:

Mil Mi-24 “Hind”: A heavily armed attack helicopter used for close air support, anti-armor operations, and troop transport.

Mil Mi-8 “Hip”: A versatile helicopter used for transport, reconnaissance, and search-and-rescue operations.

Mil Mi-2: A light utility helicopter primarily used for training, transport, and surveillance.

Ukrainian Artillery

Here are some of the types of artillery employed by the Ukrainian forces:

Towed Howitzers:

2A36 Giatsint-B: A 152 mm towed howitzer with a range of approximately 30 kilometers.

D-30: A 122 mm towed howitzer with a range of around 15 kilometers.

D-20: A 152 mm towed howitzer with a range of about 17 kilometers.

Self-Propelled Howitzers:

2S3 Akatsiya: A 152 mm self-propelled howitzer with a range of up to 18 kilometers.

2S1 Gvozdika: A 122 mm self-propelled howitzer capable of engaging targets at a range of approximately 15 kilometers.

2S19 Msta-S: A 152 mm self-propelled howitzer with an extended range of up to 29 kilometers.

Self-Propelled Artillery:

2S1 Gvozdika: A 122 mm self-propelled howitzer used for indirect fire support.

2S3 Akatsiya: A 152 mm self-propelled howitzer capable of providing heavy artillery fire.

Rocket Artillery:

BM-21 Grad: A multiple rocket launcher system utilized for long-range indirect fire support.

BM-27 Uragan: A multiple rocket launcher system with a larger caliber and extended range compared to Grad.

Multiple Rocket Launchers (MRLs):

BM-27 Uragan: A 220 mm multiple rocket launcher system with a range of around 35 kilometers.

BM-21 Grad: A 122 mm multiple rocket launcher system with a range of up to 40 kilometers.

BM-30 Smerch: A 300 mm multiple rocket launcher system with a range of up to 90 kilometers.

Air Defense Weapon Systems

Some of the types of air defense systems used by Ukraine were:

Surface-to-Air Missile Systems:

S-300: Long-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) system capable of engaging targets at a range of up to 150 kilometers.

Buk-M1/M2: Medium-range SAM system with a range of approximately 40-50 kilometers.

Tor-M1/M2: Short-range SAM system designed to engage aircraft, helicopters, and precision-guided munitions at a range of up to 15 kilometers.

Osa-AKM: Short-range SAM system used for defense against aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

MANPADS (Man-Portable Air Defense Systems):

Igla-S: Portable SAM system capable of engaging low-flying aircraft and helicopters at ranges of up to 6 kilometers.

Strela-10: MANPADS mounted on a tracked vehicle with a range of approximately 5 kilometers.

Anti-Aircraft Artillery:

ZU-23-2: A twin-barreled, 23 mm anti-aircraft autocannon used for low-level air defense.

ZSU-23-4 Shilka: Self-propelled anti-aircraft system armed with four 23 mm autocannons.

Armoured and Mechanized Forces

Some of the key armored and mechanized units within the Ukrainian Army were:

Main Battle Tanks (MBTs):

T-64: Ukrainian Army operated different variants of the T-64 MBT, including the T-64BV and T-64BM “Bulat.”

T-72: Some older T-72 MBTs were still in service with the Ukrainian forces.

Infantry Fighting Vehicles (IFVs):

BMP-1 and BMP-2: These Soviet-designed IFVs were extensively used by the Ukrainian Army to transport infantry and provide fire support.

Armored Personnel Carriers (APCs):

BTR-80 and BTR-4: The Ukrainian Army utilized these wheeled APCs for troop transport and other support roles.

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