Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) is an emerging concept that most modern militaries worldwide are working to integrate into their warfighting doctrines. The key domains encompassed in the concept include the physical domains—land, maritime, air, and space—the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS), which includes cyberspace, and the cognitive/human domain. Unlike the integration and coordination achieved by joint forces in the existing system, MDO aims to deter and defeat adversaries in operations below armed conflict, during armed conflict, and in the post-conflict phase of returning to competition.

At a time when the United States and China are experimenting with various facets of the concept, either overtly or through proxies by providing them technologies, India found an opportunity through Operation Sindoor to test and validate its warfighting concepts and technologies. It was the first instance of non-contact kinetic warfare in which the Indian military achieved the desired political aim without mobilising its formations or physically crossing borders—neither by troops nor by aircraft. India showcased its Aatma Nirbharta (self-reliance) in defence technology and demonstrated its prowess in both offensive and defensive capabilities—drone-centric warfare, resilient and responsive air defence, long-range precision weapons, loitering munitions, and electronic warfare. Operation Sindoor has established a new benchmark in India’s fight against terrorism and set a new parameter and “new normal” for future operations.

The book is structured in two parts: Part I – Multi-Domain Operations Concept and Part II – Operation Sindoor: Appraisal. The United States pioneered the development of the Multi-Domain Battle (MDB) concept in 2015–16, which later evolved into the Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) concept by December 2018. Although the MDO concept is yet to mature into a fully functional warfighting doctrine, it now guides the transformation and modernisation of the US Armed Forces and their peers. China is known to be mirroring the same with its own “Chinese characteristics.”

Part I covers the evolution of the concept in the United States and China, defines the concept primarily derived from US philosophy, explores China’s All-Domain Operations concept, examines limitations of the MDO framework, and discusses India’s challenges and options.

In Part II, after explaining the genesis of India’s problem with Pakistan, the author appraises Operation Sindoor against the backdrop of the MDO concept. Although multiple domains were addressed during Operation Sindoor through coordination and integration among the armed forces and various government departments and agencies, the MDO framework as a concept remains a distant goal. Regarding Pakistan, much of its response was propaganda through influence operations. The author effectively debunks Pakistan’s claim of downing five to six Indian fighter jets on Day One of Operation Sindoor by exposing glaring errors in the technological hypothesis developed by Mr. Michael Dahm, which was widely cited by magazines and newspapers supporting Pakistan’s false narrative.

Drone-centric warfare, multi-layered and integrated air defence, and target-centric warfare employing precision weapons—visible aspects of Operation Sindoor—are covered in comprehensive detail for both India and Pakistan. The dominant role played by Aatma Nirbharta (self-reliance) in defence and the success achieved by indigenous weapons strengthened the government’s resolve to promote it further, a theme well-articulated in the book. The space, EMS, and human domains have also been given due significance.

The hallmark of the book lies in the author’s lucid exposition of Bharat’s strategic culture, which inspires its military ethos. He emphasises that India’s values are indigenous and not borrowed from any other country.

This book, the result of extensive and detailed research by Brigadier (Dr.) Rajeev Bhutani, could not have come at a more opportune time—when nations are actively developing and transforming their forces around the MDO concept. It will be of immense value to military professionals, researchers, scientists and engineers developing defence systems in government, public, and private enterprises, as well as policymakers.

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Russia’s Strategy

Russia’s approach to war planning, particularly concerning the ongoing conflict with Ukraine, has often been misinterpreted. The Russian strategy exhibits remarkable tactical prowess, maturity, and calculated decision-making. By drawing Ukraine into a prolonged state of attrition, Russia aims to exhaust Ukrainian resources while incrementally advancing its positions. This accumulative push allows Russia to secure territorial gains and serves a strategic purpose by creating a buffer zone and gaining leverage in negotiations. Additionally, Russia’s strategy of gradual advance serves to root out the potential for insurgency within the territories it seeks to control. By consolidating their positions methodically, Moscow aims to preemptively address any potential resistance or insurgency from local populations, which helps maintain control over the newly acquired territories with the priority of stabilizing the regions under Russian control.

The Russian strategy evolved over the early course of the operation, which was intended to reign in the Ukrainian regime out of its NATO ambitions and the ethnocultural cleansing of the Donbas region, but not to occupy or annex Ukrainian territory per se. But as the narrative from Western countries became more entrenched with hostility and delusional opportunism to use Ukraine to degrade Russia permanently, the Russian strategy shifted to the gradual bleeding and destruction of Ukrainian military capabilities, including its projection of power and threat.

Hence, fundamentally, Russia has never completely aimed at capturing Ukrainian territory in a grand scenario. Russia also knew that such a strategy would be militarily frivolous in terms of tactical, operational, and strategic goals. However, it was also not in its long-term political interests and was fraught with significant risks. Russia is not fighting the war the Soviet Union had during WWII. Neither is Russia the Soviet Union, nor are the historical contexts or exigencies under which it operates similar to or necessitates conducting itself based on what might have been relevant almost eighty years ago! Russia also never had the military manpower at the outset of the Special Military Operation or even today to roam across Ukraine. And it has to preserve a significant portion of its forces to protect itself from potential ongoing aggression from NATO and its multiple allies close to Russian territory.

Ukrainian Forces

Ukraine’s force structure is always difficult to understand because of its tendency to form ad hoc battlegroups and its practice of fragmenting forces into resident brigade commands. In fact, ORBAT and force distribution in Ukraine are in a league of their own. As a result, the AFU’s organization and force generation are often more opaque and difficult to understand than Russia’s, for example. Whereas Russia uses conventional army-level groups, Ukraine has no organic commands over the brigade level. The chains of higher command of the Armed Forces of Ukraine (AFU) are extraordinarily flexible and irregular entities. Ukraine’s entire fighting organization is an improvised mixture and modification around established formations. That aspect applies especially to its highest field commands down to the brigade level. The AFU field command system’s most conspicuous anomaly is its absence of any division-level (and higher) formations. Ukraine started abolishing the Division around a decade ago in a forced restructuring.

The German Kampfgruppe units during WWII were used as a contingency against front disarray, severe losses, and replacements. They were ad-hoc combat units formed during World War II by the German Army, often composed of infantry, armor, and supporting elements for specialized tasks or missions. The AFU idealization of all-level Kampfgruppen is bizarrely unique. That said, the primary picture is one of three Ukrainian “Operational Strategic Groupings,” vaguely akin to army groups. These are, from north to south, Operation Strategic Groupings (OSGs) in Khortytsia, Tavriya, and Odessa. Against these are arrayed four Russian Army Groups – from north to south: Army Groups West, Center, East, and Dnieper. Assessing the total line strength is always tricky, largely because we do not always have good insight into the actual combat rating of these units. However, we can make estimates of paper strength. Based on deployment information from the Project Owl Ukraine Control Map, we can estimate that the nominal strength in the theater right now is some 33 Division Equivalents for Ukraine against perhaps 50 DEs for Russia – a significant, but not utterly overwhelming Russian advantage. Ukrainian Army-level formations are absent because they simply do not exist, and such arrangements prove to be a pressing challenge for any formal military establishment.

War Doctrine

But, as the Operation evolved, Russia rather quickly devised a strategy of destroying Ukraine’s Military and, by extension, degrading its NATO sponsors through long-term attrition, where the territorial battles have been used as opportunities to demolish Ukrainian forces little by little, as death by a thousand cuts over an extended period and across a vastly stretched battlefield where killing the enemy and destroying its equipment is the primary goal no matter how limited the amount of territory actually gained.

As far as Russia’s War Doctrine in Ukraine is concerned, Russia is committed to positional attrition warfare as this maximizes the asymmetry of their advantage. This depletes the firepower of not only the Ukrainian Armed Forces but also of NATO members without engaging in direct conflict with them. Russian Armed Forces iron out Ukrainian defenses with artillery and then push forward into pulverized defenses. As Ukraine continues to funnel units to refill positions, they play into the hands of the Russian Military. Noting the importance of deploying fresh operational reserves as a crucial element of any counterattack, Russia keeps the burn rate at the front high. It degrades Ukraine’s ability to form reserves and continues to place immense pressure on Ukraine and NATO, not solely in terms of seizing territory but in terms of attrition, chipping away infrastructure, and creating a cumulative impact on Ukraine’s overall fighting capability. Kiev’s position is untenable as they may be able to fight effective static defense from prepared positions. Still, they cannot reverse Russian gains or respond to new breakthroughs without a combined arms reserve. Any serious effort by Ukraine to retrieve the fortified cities will divert the scarce trained manpower and equipment, thus squashing any attempts of offensive campaigns. They are also currently exhausted to the point where they lack combat-effective combined arms reserve units. Furthermore, such units have been unable to maneuver efficiently due to fuel shortages and incessant Russian artillery and air strikes.

Russia’s Advances

Russia is slowly advancing on almost every axis of the theater, which has both strategic and tactical implications, as the Ukrainians are being forced to burn reserves while being prevented from rotating and reconstituting their forces, as well as a precise operational formulation. Russia’s maneuver scheme must be kept in mind regarding its minimum end-state objectives: to capture the remaining Donbas city agglomerations (around Slovyansk) around Kramatorsk Although the war and Russia’s military ambitions may not end there.

At present, there are several main axes of advancement: On the central axis of the front, the Russian thrusts on the Avdiivka axis and the Chasiv Yar axis converge on the crucial Ukrainian hub of Konstytinivka, capturing which is a prerequisite for any serious effort to advance on Kramatorsk.

Simultaneously, Russian forces exert ongoing pressure on the northern front, employing a gradual squeeze tactic on the city of Kupyansk at the apex of the Oskil line and advancing towards Lyman along the Zherebets axis. These maneuvers aim to establish a foothold towards the strategic objective of Kramatorsk, contingent upon Russian control of the north bank of the Donets River up to the Izyum confluence with the Oskil.

In the southern sectors, Russia expands its zone of influence following the capture of Marinka, likely intending to build momentum towards Kurakhove, thereby placing the Ukrainian stronghold of Ugledar in a precarious position. Ugledar’s proximity to Russian rail lines vital for the land bridge amplifies its strategic significance, prompting Russian efforts to seize it. Additionally, Russian forces target the Ukrainian-held Robotyne salient, a remnant of Ukraine’s counteroffensive. While these assaults serve to tie down Ukrainian forces, they also aim to preempt any Ukrainian aspirations to utilize Robotyne as a launching point for future offensives towards Tokmak. Thus, these southern operations serve both attritional purposes and the strategic neutralization of Ukrainian staging areas. The overarching operational scenario indicates Moscow is gaining offensive momentum across the entire theater. This trend undermines Ukrainian combat effectiveness by impeding rotation, regeneration, and lateral troop movements while depleting Ukraine’s already limited reserves.

Sustaining the War Effort

The Russo-Ukrainian War is one of industrial attrition – a grueling campaign marked by relentless assaults against entrenched defenses, where concrete, steel, and explosives dictate the tempo. Ukraine confronts a stark reality: Russia’s military buildup nears critical mass, tipping the scales decidedly in Moscow’s favor. Initially strengthened by a substantial shell inventory, Ukraine’s arsenal benefitted from meticulous resource management and international aid, notably from the United States and South Korea. However, sustained high-intensity combat depleted much of these reserves, leaving Ukrainian forces grappling with a critical shortage of artillery ammunition.

Ukraine has sought to expand its production capabilities to sustain its war effort, primarily in Europe and the United States. Yet, this strategy encounters formidable obstacles: sluggish industrial ramp-up, production targets insufficient to match Russia’s onslaught, and logistical hurdles such as barrel scarcity. The United States has fared better in ramping production, slated to deliver approximately 500000 shells in 2024. Europe faces various problems, like labor shortages, exorbitant energy costs, and a consensus-driven decision-making culture that is slow to allocate significant resources. The European practice of small orders placed by individual member states also makes manufacturers hesitant to invest significantly in new production lines. Or, as one Belgian general put it: “We’re in deep shit.”

Ukraine’s ammunition shortfall remains dire even if the USA and Europe meet their delivery targets. Optimistically, combined efforts might yield 1.3 million rounds annually, equating to a modest daily allocation-insufficient for sustained offensive operations. Ukrainian Defense Minister Reznikov’s assertion of needing nearly 12000 shells daily underscores the magnitude of the challenge. While this figure may be aspirational, conservative estimates suggest Ukraine requires at least 200000 shells monthly to maintain a functional military posture. However, with current projections, Ukraine faces an uphill battle in amassing the requisite stockpile for intensified offensives. Artillery barrels deteriorate with prolonged use, typically lasting around 2500 shots for a howitzer. Consequently, assuming sustained firing rates as desired by Reznikov, Ukraine would face the wearing out of approximately 125-150 guns per month. Complicating matters further, Ukraine operates at least 17 different artillery platforms. Meanwhile, Russia’s shell production capacity has been significantly underestimated. Domestic Russian production has surged, with Estonian estimates indicating around 3.5 million shells produced in 2023, which is expected to increase to 4.5 million in 2024. Russia has considerable capability to sustain a firing rate of up to 12000 shells per day, with reserve surge capacity. Even if European production surges as anticipated, there remains a substantial advantage for Russia, potentially reaching a ratio of 3-1 or even 5-1 in artillery firepower. This advantage is compounded by Western reports of increased Russian production of advanced strike systems such as cruise missiles, Geran drones, Lancets, and glide bombs, boasting greater power and range. Recent publications, such as those from the Royal United Services Institute, highlight Russia’s capacity to deliver significant numbers of tanks, armored vehicles, and missiles, further solidifying its military dominance.

The most important question is simple: whether an army’s relative combat power is growing or shrinking over time – that is, whether its ability to generate forces is greater than its rate of burn – can it reconstitute attrited units in a timely manner, generate replacements, recover, repair, and replace broken equipment, and so forth. The prototypical example of this is, of course, the German-Soviet War. Even though the Third Reich enjoyed favorable “loss ratios” throughout most of the war, the ratio of combat power consistently grew in the USSR’s favor due to their vastly superior force generation powers. During the Battle of Kursk, Hitler even quipped that the loss ratios should predict an imminent German victory. Loss ratios do not matter nearly as much as the relative rate of loss and force generation. Estonian intelligence estimates underscore Russia’s ability to continually train, equip, and deploy additional troops, outpacing current loss rates. RUSI further emphasizes the growth in Russian forces deployed in Ukraine, from 360000 to 470000 over the last year, highlighting the formidable challenge Ukraine faces. Russian force generation continues to grow steadily over time rather than merely replenishing losses.

In contrast, Ukrainian forces face increasing manpower shortages, with under-strength brigades tasked with increasingly demanding operations. It’s evident that Ukrainian reserves are dwindling, as highlighted in Avdiivka, where brigades from other fronts were hastily deployed, indicating a lack of strategic reserves. The elite 3rd Assault Brigade was even committed in the final stages of the battle to stem the tide. Meanwhile, units like the 110th Mechanized engaged for months, suffered significant attrition due to the inability to rotate out. In contrast, Russia conducts regular troop rotations while Ukrainian forces remain on the front lines due to a shortage of replacements.

The Minister of Defence of the Russian Federation, Sergei Shoigu recently made an uncharacteristically bold statement that the AFU was committing much of its remaining reserves: “After the collapse of the counteroffensive, the Ukrainian Army command has been trying to stabilize the situation at the expense of the remaining reserves and prevent the collapse of the frontline.”

What to Expect?

In the near term, one could expect Russia to progress toward the following intermediate operational goals:

•   Developing a concentric offensive towards the Ukrainian agglomerations around Chasiv Yar, Novomikhailovka and Toretsk

•   An offensive along the Zherebets-Oskil line towards Lyman to capture or screen the Donetsk River line as a prerequisite for an operation against Kramatorsk

•   Continued assaults towards Kurakhove in preparation for the liquidation of the Ugledar salient

•   Preventative attacks towards the Orakhiv axis to prevent future Ukrainian attempts to exploit the Robotyne salient

While 2022 witnessed initial successes for Ukraine, 2023 saw missed opportunities despite ample Western assistance. Instead, Ukraine exhausted valuable resources in defending Bakhmut and futilely attacked a well-prepared Russian defense in the south. With Russian force generation rising inexorably, Ukraine faces the looming threat of strategic defeat. To avert this, Ukraine must pursue a radical mobilization plan bolstered by increased support from its allies. However, Ukraine lacks the capacity to train and equip its forces independently. Without substantial NATO assistance, a total mobilization risks escalating casualties without significant gains. Yet, even maintaining current levels of aid is challenging amidst waning international support and domestic crises in crucial NATO member states.

2022 was the year of wild swings as the front stabilized into a conveniently shaped and quickly supplied Russian position, and 2023 was the year of Ukraine’s strategic window of opportunity, frittered away at Bakhmut. 2024 is the year that Russia’s swelling force generation reaches a climax, and the war turns in an evident and irreversible way against Ukraine. As Steve Harris of Iron Maiden remarked in one of the most iconic songs of the band, “The sands of time for me are running low…”, Kiev has almost no time and resources to ‘orchestrate’ (special courtesy Wagner PMC) any meaningful offensive operations. Of course, once substantially degraded, the Ukrainian regime and its allies would be at Russia’s mercy in shaping the postwar era in Ukraine, both politically and territorially. The Russo-Ukrainian conflict has demonstrated that industry, manufacturing & the physical economy have always been relevant, and newly emerging powers such as India must grasp this insight to develop a broadly industrialized economy in the wake of a real two-front threat and a rewarding prospect of becoming a serious global power. That said, the window of strategic opportunity has closed for Ukraine and now opens wide for Russia. In this sense, one must appreciate how a few meters in this theatre equals hundreds of miles relative to the grand old wars of the previous century. The heinous attack at the Crocus City Hall marks the beginning of a new phase in the conflict. March 2024. Not very far from Fontainebleau, a windy dawn at Brussels unfolds skies seven and a half decades old. The sun struggles to pierce through the misty haze, and the approaching summer months carry the weight of a hot war.

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Montgomery himself said it best. When asked what it would take for the Red Army to break through to the Atlantic, he simply answered: “Shoes.”

As the dust now settled on the conclusion of World War II, Western European leadership was anxious about a potential tactical challenge – a communist-led land invasion. The USSR had emerged from the conflict as a formidable power, while its former European allies were weakened after the War. Yet, to understand the gravity of this situation, we must rewind our clocks by seven years to the onset of WWII itself. The Second World War had an odd symmetry in that it ended much the same way it started: with a well-drilled, technically advanced, and operationally ambitious army carving apart an outmatched foe. Of course, the major phase of the war began with Germany’s swift devastation of Poland, which rewrote the book on mechanized operations. The Soviet Union’s equally totalizing and fast victory of Manchuria in August 1945 marked the end of the war, or at least the final major land campaign.

To provide proper context, it is essential to tell the tale of the Battle of Kursk before proceeding with Manchuria. In the challenging spring of 1943, the Wehrmacht faced a daunting situation. Army Group South’s efforts to reach the Caucasus had been in vain, and the aftermath of the Stalingrad defeat required a monumental effort led by Generalfeldmarschall Erich von Manstein to salvage the Army. With Soviet forces outnumbering the Germans twofold on the eastern front and having a significant advantage of reserve troops, the odds were stacked against the Germans. The Red Army’s superiority in tube and rocket artillery further compounded the challenges. Manstein’s successful counterattack in Central Ukraine had pushed the Soviets back, regaining key cities like Kharkov and Belgorod. However, a planned offensive towards Kursk had to be canceled due to weaknesses in the German formations further north, which resulted in the Soviets occupying a significant bulge centered around Kursk.

Battle of Kursk

The plan was to have armies from Army Group Center and Army Group South attack the base of the bulge, meet at the rear, and encircle the Soviet forces within. However, Manstein faced obstacles with the mud season halting operations during the spring thaw, causing both sides to pause and regroup. German intelligence believed the USSR could deploy 40 fresh divisions in Kursk. In reality, they deployed 800 divisions! The Red Army planned to fill the bulge with troops and artillery, denying the Wehrmacht any possibility of encirclement. This demonstrates the importance of operational reserves in warfare. However, it is also crucial to note that a clash of tanks occurred at Prokhorovka, where the powerful Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army aimed to counterattack against the approaching SS spearhead, leading to a close-range tank-on-tank combat. However, the clash resulted in a tactical debacle for the Soviet tank army, as they launched an ill-advised frontal assault against technologically superior German vehicles. The technological gap between the German Big Cats – the Panzer V Panther, and the Tiger proved to be serious opponents for the Soviet tanks. Although, the battle at Prokhorovka did not greatly alter the course of the larger Kursk operation, as the German attack failed to break through the heavily fortified Soviet defenses. But this was a clarion call for the Soviet military planners.

Manchuria

Now, Manchuria is one of the many forgotten fronts of the War despite being among the oldest. The Japanese had been meandering in Manchuria since 1931, consolidating a pseudo-colony and puppet state ostensibly called Manchukuo, which served as a launching pad for more than a decade of Japanese incursions and operations in China. For a brief period, the Asian land front had been a key pivot of world affairs, with the Japanese and the Soviet Red Army fighting a series of skirmishes along the Siberian-Manchurian border and Japan’s brutal 1937 invasion of China, which was an indicator of the impending global war. However, circumstances had pulled attention and resources in other directions, particularly the events of 1941, with the outbreak of the German-Soviet War and the Great Pacific War. After a few years, as a significant geopolitical pivot, Manchuria was relegated to the background and became a lonely, forgotten front of the Japanese Empire until 1945.

Among the many topics discussed at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 was the Soviet Union’s long-delayed entry into the war against Japan, opening an overland front against Japan’s mainland colonies. Although it seems relatively obvious that Japanese defeat was inevitable, given the relentless American advance through the Pacific and the onset of regular strategic bombing of the Japanese home islands, there were concrete reasons why Soviet entry into the war was necessary to hasten Japanese surrender. More specifically, the Japanese continued to harbor hopes late into the war that the Soviet Union would choose to mediate between Japan and the United States, negotiating a conditional end to the war that fell short of total Japanese surrender. Soviet entry into the war against Japan would dash these hopes. The Soviet Union’s overrunning of Japanese colonies in Asia would emphasize to Tokyo that they had nothing to fight for. Against this backdrop, the Soviet Union spent the summer of 1945 preparing for one final operation to shatter Japan in Manchuria.

The Soviet maneuver scheme was tightly choreographed and well-conceived – representing in many ways a type of encore, perfected demonstration of the operational art that had been developed and practiced at such a high cost in Europe. The strategic plan involved utilizing the unique geography of Manchuria, which extended into the Soviet Union’s borders. The plan was designed to rapidly and efficiently attack several rail and transportation hubs situated in the Japanese rear. These hubs were identified as Qiqihar, Harbin, Changchun, and Mukden, and the aim was to secure them quickly and effectively. By rapidly bypassing the main Japanese field armies and converging on transit hubs in the rear, the Red Army effectively isolated all the Japanese armies from each other and from their lines of communication to the rear, effectively slicing Manchuria into a host of separated pockets.

It is important to acknowledge that the Japanese faced insurmountable odds in resisting the attack. The Soviet force was overwhelmingly equipped with manpower and resources-three fronts consisting of over 1.5 million men, 5000 armored vehicles, and tens of thousands of artillery pieces and rocket launchers. The Japanese were facing an uphill battle from the onset. Imperial Japan (including Manchurian proxy forces) had a paper strength of perhaps 900000 men, but the vast majority of this force was unfit for combat. Virtually all of the Japanese Army’s veteran units and equipment had been steadily transferred to the Pacific in a cannibalizing trickle-a vain attempt to slow the American onslaught. Accordingly, by 1945, the Japanese Kwantung Army had been reduced to a lightly armed and poorly trained conscript force suitable only for police actions and counterinsurgency against Chinese partisans.

There was nothing for the Japanese to do. The Kwantung Army had far less of a fighting chance in 1945 than the Wehrmacht had in the spring of that year. Unsurprisingly, the Soviets broke through everywhere at will when they began the assault on 9th August. Soviet armored forces comfortably overran Japanese positions, which were armed primarily with archaic, low-caliber antitank weaponry that could not penetrate Soviet armor even at point-blank range. By the end of the first day, the Soviet pincers were driving far into the rear. The offensive demonstrated the Red Army’s extreme proficiency in organizing enormous operations and moving at high speeds. By August 20 (after only 11 days), the Red Army had reached the Korean border and captured all their objectives in the Japanese rear, in effect completely overrunning a theater that was even larger than France. Many of the Soviet spearheads had driven more than three hundred miles in a little over a week.

The combat aspects of the operation were ludicrous, given the totalizing level of Soviet overmatch. Red Army losses hardly breached the 5-digit mark, which is inconsequential for an operation of this scale. What was genuinely impressive – and terrifying to alert observers – was the Red Army’s clear demonstration of its capacity to organize colossal operations in scale, both in the size of the forces and the distances covered. Soviet forces would begin a formal withdrawal from Manchuria and Korea in 1946. Still, as they receded, they left in their wake consolidated and well-supported communist political machines, including the Workers Party of Korea under Chairman Kim Il Sung and the Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong. The Soviet Union presented something of a unique geopolitical triple threat. In its own right, it had astonishing state capacity to field massive armies and roll them over continent-sized spaces. It had a proven model of effective political institutions that could allow local communist parties to establish powerful political monopolies.

All of these powers had been on full display in Asia, with the lightning advance, the rapid consolidation and funneling of resources to local communist parties, and the durable North Korean and Chinese party states that were left behind once the Red Army withdrew. To make matters even worse, this powerful Soviet expansion apparatus was now precariously forward deployed deep in the heart of Europe, with the Soviet frontier pushing all the way into Central Germany. The fear that the Soviet Union would replicate its Manchurian exploits in Europe became the foundational anxiety of the Cold War – predating both Soviet atomic weapons and, by extension, the fear of nuclear war. As early as 1947, France and the United Kingdom began signing joint defense pacts, which expanded to include Belgium and the Netherlands with the 1948 Treaty of Brussels, bringing about the short-lived “Western Union Defense Organization” (WUDO). It was clear, however, that such a limited alliance structure would be utterly inadequate in the event of war with the Soviet Union. France and Britain were degraded, threadbare powers in no place to fight yet another major war.

The Cold War

The beginning of the Cold War can be best identified as a sequence of events in 1948 and 1949, which together represented the breakdown of the post-war Soviet-American cooperation in Europe and the consolidation of the power blocs that would characterize the Cold War. In those intervening years after the end of the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union undertook a series of actions designed to consolidate their positions in Europe according to the postwar settlement. The US rehabilitated Western Europe under the Marshall Plan, while the USSR forbade Eastern bloc countries from participating. There was thus a certain degree of symmetry as both the USSR and the United States consolidated the two spheres of Europe, creating a sharp split down the spine of the continent. The US intervened in Greece to prevent a communist takeover, followed by a Soviet-backed coup in Czechoslovakia. The Soviet abandonment of the Allied Control Council ended any joint administration in occupied Germany. The situation worsened with the attempted communist putsch in Berlin and the Soviet blockade of the German capital, leading to the Berlin airlift. The formation of NATO in April 1949 was a response to the deteriorating security situation. The Soviet Union predictably followed with the Warsaw Pact a few years later. The Cold War was on.

The doctrines established during the Cold War have persisted to a significant extent in the present tactical situation in Europe. NATO’s expansion has not helped ease these considerations. The balance between evolving military technologies and the constraints of available resources continues to shape contemporary military strategies in the European theater.

Modern-day Russia has overcome its Kurskian deficiencies by arming itself with some of the world’s most advanced weaponry and establishing an elaborate, yet normative means of use.

However, a notable departure from historical precedents such as Kursk and Manchuria is Russia’s manpower limitation. This has impacted its ability to swiftly conduct large-scale Manchurian offensives in Ukraine. This scarcity of manpower has influenced Russia’s tactical decision-making, leading to a more calculated approach to strategic dynamics.

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Each country has its own distinctive Strategic Culture and Way of War Fighting that evolves over time & tends to outlast the era of its inception. Thus the Chinese PLA still assiduously studies “Sun Zi Bing Fa” ( Sun Tzu’s Art of War) that was written in the 3rd Century BCE. They are convinced that this text has valuable lessons for the current era, for it was written in a similar Multi-Polar era of Warring States. So were the Mahabharta and Kautilya’s Artha Shastra written in similar era of Mult- Polar power equations & constantly warring Maha Janapadas (major states). These two seminal texts represent the quint essential Indian Strategic Culture and way of War-fighting, that is deeply ingrained in our psyche. Today we need to urgently study our Traditional Knowledge Systems, for they represent our innate genius and way of waging war. Not only do we need to indigenise the design & production of our weapon systems, we equally need to indigenise our military doctrines and way of waging war. Hence the need to study the Mahabharta’s and Kautilya’s ways of waging war because they have very significant lessons for us today. The Kautilyan way of war was premised upon waging a long covert campaign of destabilisation and psy- ops to break the balance of the enemy state. Then a swift & sharp military campaign was launched to mop up in the wake of the extended de- stabilisation campaign. Massed war elephants were used to produce shock & awe &speed up the campaign. Amazingly, the same war – fighting design emerged unconsciously in the Bangladesh war of 1971, when in just 13 Days, India broke Pakistan in two and liberated the whole country of Sonar Bangla. The author has carried out a comparative analysis of Kautilya with Machiaville and Sun Tzu that would be useful for scholars & soldiers alike.

Major General (Dr.) G.D. Bakshi, SM, VSM (Retd.) is a decorated combat veteran who was commissioned in the 6th Battalion of the Jammu & Kashmir rifles in 1971. He commanded his Battalion, Brigade and Division in active combat environments in J&K. He became a turn-around specialist and turned defeat into victory in very tough assignments. He has authored 46 books and written over 400 papers for prestigious defence journals. A highly popular TV commentator, he lectures extensively on the subjects of leadership, motivation and national security and is a thought leader on these issues. Currently, he is the editor of Indian Military Review, the defense monthly journal that has the largest circulation in India. In 2018, he was conferred the Chandra Shekhar Rashtriya Samman award by the Govt. of Madhya Pradesh.

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Session 1: Inaugural Session

Maj Gen (Dr) Ashok Kumar, Director General CENJOWS, said that the deliverables are not fully visible in the Services as far as Surveillance & Electro Optics are concerned. Much more needs to be done. He further enumerated that the Surveillance & Electro Optics systems consist of one of the four components essential for warfighting and these are:

• Sensors -They are the eyes and ears that sense the situation in the air, land, and sea domain.
• Data and communication links through which sensor outputs are transmitted to the systems where it will be stored, analyzed, and acted upon.
• Command and Control Centre/ Data Fusion Centre, where the data will be processed and decisions are taken to respond.
• Shooter – is the final component which will react to the emerging situation.

The sensor is the most critical element of the loop, so surveillance using electro-optical sensors is the most important part of the chain. We need to investigate the spectrum and bandwidth the systems need to work upon efficiently. The systems must have the capacity to connect and work together with the three services, and the compatibility with the existing systems will improve their capabilities.

Lt Gen DS Rana, Director General Defence Intelligence Agency delivered the inaugural address stating that, electro-optical sensors harvest the capabilities of optics and electronics to analyze high-resolution visual images in real time. The current conflicts in Ukraine, the Red Sea situation, the South China Sea, the nuclear ambitions of Iran and firings by North Korea are driving the world into an unstable situation. In our neighbourhood, Pakistan is facing an economic crisis, and China, too, is increasing its footprints not only on land but at sea. The need for high-grade sensors onboard drones and space-based assets is proliferating. The role of commercial intelligence data by Maxar has helped Ukraine analyze the movement of Russian troops and counter the threat in time before the attack began. Ukraine has access to NATO-based intelligence, and Russia and Ukraine are continuously attacking the targets in depth using PNT. China has increased its space-based capabilities with EO imaging revisit of about fifteen minutes, two hours in SAR, near-continuous coverage of ELINT in the Indian region. It has ISR capabilities in geosynchronous orbit for round-the-clock coverage in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. China is developing a ground-based system in Pakistan that will enhance BeiDou accuracy to 15cm based on PNT to enhance its regional precision strike capabilities. The unmanned drones can conduct ISRs and are equipped with high-definition IR and SAR sensors. Pakistan is building up its capabilities for coverage of its land borders along Iran, India and Afghanistan using high-definition EO sensors fitted drones. HAPS are solar-powered drones that fly above 20 km for persistent capabilities for many months with a resolution of 15cm. Ground-based sensors can sense the movement of troops using acoustic sensors, and China has operationalized an EO grid along the Line of Actual Control for all weather coverage. The maritime role relies on various sensors, such as long-range patrol aircraft and acoustic sensors fitted on undersea autonomous vehicles. All these developments in the sensors onboard space, air and sea-based platforms have resulted in a paradigm shift in how intelligence is gathered. There is no shortage of data, and the use of data analytics and machine learning algorithms using AI will only help in analyzing the spatial data from a variety of sensors. The use of GIS for the fusion and visualization of spatial data is a growing field many intelligence agencies have adopted. The growth of MASINT (measurement and signature intelligence) is where data from multiple sensors capable of sensing data like electromagnetic, electro-optical, acoustic, and chemical composition are fused. Only the US and Israelis have this technology and our efforts to shore up this technology is the need of the hour. The next challenge is to fuse the data and generate the information using network nodes. These data can be shared in a secure grid to seamlessly counter emerging threats in various domains. He concluded by mentioning that the current global conflicts and geopolitical situations are driving the need for high-grade sensors onboard drones and space-based assets. Both China & Pakistan are developing space-based capabilities, including imaging and coverage in the Indian region. Further, the use of data analytics, machine learning algorithms, and GIS for spatial data fusion and visualization is becoming increasingly important. The growth of MASINT technology, which combines data from multiple sensors, is a priority for many intelligence agencies. The next challenge is to effectively fuse and share data to counter emerging threats.

The Keynote Address was delivered by Air Marshal Surat Singh, Director General Air Ops, Air HQ. He defined the emerging warfighting using the sensors in the following roles:

• Superior Battlefield transparency.
• Networking of all sensors.
• Shortening of OODA loop using automated data support loop.
• Swift response using agile weapons.

They are being done at the HQ level to enable the standardized operation of data formats, protocols, and interfaces. The aerospace domain requires the exploitation of space, air and surface-based sensors. The commercialization of space and dual-use technology must be used optimally. In addition, identifying threats in space, air surface and maritime has to be done almost on a real-time basis using private and public assets. The requirements for space-based solutions that the Air Force has met, are, Stratospheric and persistent platforms assets, Low-cost and fast deployable and expendable assets, Interface with the existing networks like the IACCS system. It enhances the space segment and sensors’ networking to provide sufficient early warning and intercept opportunities. He concluded by discussing the use of sensors in emerging warfighting strategies. These must be implemented for achieving superior battlefield transparency, shortening the OODA loop, integrating all sensors, through automated data support. The air and space domain requires the optimal use of space, air, and surface-based sensors, commercialization of space and dual-use technology. Real-time threat identification in various domains is crucial and can be achieved using both private and public assets. He concluded that the Air Force has successfully met the requirements for space-based solutions, including stratospheric and persistent platforms, low-cost and fast deployable assets, and interface with existing networks.

A Special Address was delivered by Dr BK Das, DG Electronics and Communication Systems (ECS), DRDO. He highlighted that DRDO was working on a comprehensive approach to monitoring warfare trends, both in the outer space and undersea domains. It will be a non-contact war with autonomous weapons with robotics and cyber playing an important role. The next engagement is characterized as zero physical touch, as it will involve use of autonomous weaponry, AI based robots and cyber warfare. Technology wars would require careful re-alignment between country’s tech capabilities, weapon manufacturing, and industrial infrastructure to sustain them. Prioritizing development and maintenance of technological edge is crucial to come out of reliance on the other countries. DRDO is deliberating various options for services, to include SAR and LIDAR technology, advanced radar technologies, and the concept of a “Digital Soldier as a System.” The Services will utilize AI-based electro-optic soldier, autonomous decision-making abilities, robotics capabilities, and its ability to network. Cognitive Warfare is using advanced technologies to disrupt or manipulate adversary’s cognitive processes, while first-person drones will be resistant to EI & RF Interference. He further spoke about how Quantum computing will be used for surveillance in multi-domain battlefields which will facilitate object detection and identification through data gathering, fusion, and analysis. In conclusion, he re-iterated that the DRDO is working towards a comprehensive approach to monitoring warfare, incorporating technologies like artificial intelligence, space warfare capabilities, nanotechnology, big data, and additive manufacturing.

Col K V Kuber, Director Defence & Aerospace, Ernst & Young gave the industry perspective. He said that interoperability was the key for a functional surveillance system with impunity. Indian industries must collaborate with global vendors to get competitive. To reduce Indian dependence on foreign countries, we have to pep up our industrial base and ecosystem. Investment in the indigenous industry is essential to reduce India’s reliance on resources of the other countries. Strategic partnerships are the key. AI will be applied in almost all domains for crucial inputs on data. Sensors in all domains will be used to boost situational awareness and manage information overload. He concluded by re-iterating that data is crucial for intuitive design and industry must develop advance technology in sensors globally. We must ensure that India should be fully prepared indigenously for potential confrontations and early use of weapon systems based on sensors in all domains.

Session 2: Terrestrial Surveillance

The session was chaired by Brig Anurag Asthana, Brig Ops, Artillery Directorate, Army HQ. He introduced the session by drawing inferences from present global scenarios and how countries are striving for military development. He referred to the 7 October 2023 attack launched by Hamas on Israel as an example of growing conventional and asymmetric warfare equipped with lethal weapons. Touching on the session theme ‘Terrestrial Surveillance’, he reiterated the significance of multi-sensors and how the Indian Army was continuously working to upgrade surveillance facilities. He said that future battlefields would be driven by miniaturized Unmanned Autonomous Systems (UAS) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), highlighting how AI was being used for reading huge data and had opened “new vistas.” He flagged the requirement of surveillance through deployment of sensors that would allow sufficient time to process data. Passive surveillance would remain beneficial than active surveillance and that the surveillance grid needs to have full proof communication systems.

Shri Madhukar DIG (Ops) Force HQ BSF covered the challenges being faced by the Border Security Force in managing the borders at night. His presentation showcased an overview of the responsibilities of the BSF, present facilities related to surveillance and future challenges that requires to be addressed. Stressing on the dynamic terrain and climate of the Indian subcontinent, the speaker elucidated on the peace time and wartime responsibilities undertaken by the BSF for each of the geographical commands. The Western Sector revolves around the increased use of UAVs, tunnelling across international borders, low visibility during winters, poorly lit areas and non- effectiveness of Surveillance equipment during winters. Similarly, the challenges in the Eastern Sector are specific to altitude and temperature. The BSF has incubated several responses that include Hot Interception Team, Naka cum Ambush, Foot patrolling, Anti-drone operations and even Boat Naka. He further highlighted several projects undertaken by the BSF and comprise of ‘Comprehensive Integrated Border Management Systems’ (CIBMS), ‘Electronic Surveillance of vulnerable patches’ (ESVP) and OCTS project. In the concluding remarks he reiterated continued collaborative measures between BSF with DRDO, IITs and agencies like NTRO for technical solutions with integrated security system at borders. Additionally, the introduction of smart fences will be a game changer with high tech surveillance devices such as sensors, ground-based radar systems, etc, to provide a holistic surveillance mechanism.

Col Sameer Babu, Colonel (C&R), Army AD Directorate, Army HQ, spoke on the Latest Developments in Tackling Threats and C&R for Air Defence, emphasized that Army AD was the largest user of radars amongst the three Services. He touched upon the threats emanating from various altitudes and speeds which call for a dynamic surveillance system in addition to the existing ones. He also highlighted the evolving air threat and the growing impact of air power with the need for an effective air defence capability for land operations. Advancements in radar technology was flagged. Development of passive radar technology will remain a game changer since it is highly cost-effective and compliments existing radar systems. Multiple Inputs, Multiple Output (MIMO) radar technology that has evolved from communications systems provides an edge by simultaneously radiating uncorrelated signals, improving coverage and signal quality. He also flagged the use of ‘Digital Beam’ technology that can be deployed to achieve higher angular resolution and wide coverage without mechanical moving parts. The usage of ‘Active Electronically Steered Array Radar’ and ‘Radar Digital Signal Processing’ were also discussed.

The session also saw participation by several industry players and start-ups who making strides in surveillance and electro-optics equipment.

Vaibhav Gupta, Director, MKU Ltd, spoke on Electro-Optics: Shaping Modern Warfare & Defense Strategies – Learnings, Lessons & Implication In 2024. He spoke on how electro-optics was shaping warfare and defence strategies by drawing lessons from contemporary conflicts, which revealed larger and recurring requirement of equipment and night vision devices, enhanced role of sensor-based technologies, and the need for efficient solutions which deliver “first salvo effectiveness.” This meant there was a need to be self sufficient in manufacturing and core technologies. He then presented MKU’s Smart Soldier Solutions (Netro Soldier Optronics and Kavro Soldier Protection) and Smart Platform Solutions (Netro Platform Optronics and Kavro Platform Protection).He also gave details of MKU’s facilities and reach of its products and clients around the world.

Ram Biron, Director of Marketing, SCD, Israel, spoke on Advanced integrated applications utilizing high definition format IR detectors. He gave details about SCD’s credentials, facilities, core technologies in infrared detectors and video engines. He explained SCD’s share of cooled 2nd-gen scanning and staring FPAs, InGaAs FPAs detectors and modules in the defence market. He covered key global trends in IR sensors which were driving SCD’s road map. His presentation included SCD’s cooled detectors and video engines (MW/LW), new-gen SWIR solutions, combined HD MWIR and 3rd-gen ALPD SWIR, and next-gen DAS for armoured fighting vehicles.

Sandeep Shah, Managing Director, Optimized Electrotech, spoke on Assisted & Automated Surveillance. He gave details about the company and progress, patents, certifications, and clients. He cited challenges in surveillance – border conflicts, undemarcated borders, infiltration, and specific geopolitical and geographical challenges in India. He gave details about Optimized Electrotech products – NoctVision, InfiVision, ClearVision, and OmniVision. He also gave details and benefits of Autonomous AI based multi-spectral surveillance platforms.

Abhinav Gupta, Managing Director, SES, spoke on Rechargeable Li-Ion Batteries for Military Devices. He gave an overview of his company, products, present challenges in battery use, indigenous solutions, capabilities and in-house facilities. SES has worked for Indian and Israeli armed forces. SES solutions included smart chips and intelligent programming, intelligent electronics, advanced machining, novel materials and innovations.

Vinod Yadav, Head-Technical (Optronics & Computing Platforms), Tata Advanced Systems Ltd spoke on Products and Solutions in Electro-optics. He gave details about Tata Advanced Systems’ business verticals, product portfolio (Weapons, Sensors, C4I systems), and particularly the portfolio in electro-optics (cooled TI systems, uncooled TI systems, II-tube based NVDs). He gave details about short-range observation systems, long range observation systems (Rajak ULR), modular long range surveillance platforms, weapons sights, crew vision systems. He also spelt out TASL’s future technology focus areas.

Ramkrishna Siddam, General Manager, Optica spoke on Complete Solutions for Next-Generation Electro-Optical Systems. He overview of his company, capabilities, certifications, products, core expertise, testing facilities, and optics & electro-optical systems including Schlieren Systems, optics for TMT, Aerosol LIDAR, Cloud LIDAR, MIR LIDAR, FTIR System, Adoptive Optics BDOC System, Light Weight High Power Laser Mirror, IR panoramic camera and ongoing projects including Surya Tilak project for Ram Mandir at Ayodhya.

Session 3: Aerial In Space-based Surveillance

The session was chaired by AVM Rajiva Ranjan, ACAS Ops (Space), Air HQ. He said that military intelligence was the key to war. Space and air are the ultimate frontiers. In 1991, Space ISR became prominent. Aerial and SAR systems are very vital assets for military in multi-domain operations. Aerial SAR, integrated on aircraft, offers various advantage of fast deployment and flexibility, enabling real-time monitoring and target identification in various terrain and all domains. These systems provide crucial intelligence for mission planning, threat assessment, and battlefield situational awareness. On the other hand, SAR satellites provide persistent surveillance capabilities to monitor vast areas continuously for global coverage. They offer high-resolution capabilities that detect and track moving targets and assess changes in the environment. Both aerial and space-based SAR systems were integral components of military reconnaissance in providing invaluable support for operations, intelligence and decision-making processes in all domain.

Col Jasbir Mann, Col Aviation-10, Army Aviation Directorate spoke on UAV sensor payloads for persistent surveillance, and emphazied on the technologies for future warfare which could include three main types of technologies – Foundational, Strategic and Tactical. Examples included Artificial Intelligence, space technology and cyberwarfare. There is also a list of other advanced technologies like nanotechnology and robotics. He mentioning the need of all-weather aircraft and surveillance systems with capability of contemporary payload with high resolution.

Wg Cdr Aruna Singh, DIPAC, Def Space Agency spoke on Space-based ISR for early warning. Space Surveillance along with Military operations rely heavily on surveillance and reconnaissance, to perform strategic and tactical imaging over areas of interest with persistent surveillance. Geosynchronous satellites offer wider surveillance over wide areas particularly denied by other surveillance devices. The speaker highlighted the significance of gathering intelligence to effectively plan and carry out military operations, making well- informed decisions. She discussed the importance of adjusting military forces in response to shifts in an adversary’s order of battle (ORBAT) and making necessary revisions to future actions. Regarding EW satellites, she mentioned that they are designed to specifically detect ballistic missile launches. It was later incorporated into missile defence systems and regulatory control systems for nuclear tests as these satellites have the capability to detect a missile launch right from the start of its trajectory. They utilize infrared sensors to detect missile engines based on the intense heat emitted by their flames. They possess a distinct advantage over radar in their ability to scan a significantly larger area. As on date, three nations-USA, Russia, and China possess constellations of these early warning satellites. Lastly, she emphasized the advantages of the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS). This system consists of a network of satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit and payloads in highly elliptical orbit, all managed by ground processing and control systems. These systems are held by three countries only so far.

Air Cmde Hrushikesh J Page, Air Cmde Int (Ops), Air HQ spoke on Latest developments and requirements for Tactical Recce (EO, SAR, IR Search). Having a deep understanding of tactical reconnaissance is crucial for successful military operations. It allows for thorough analysis of the ever-changing dynamics of the battlefield, accurate identification and prioritization of targets, efficient management of information dissemination, and effective communication. It is of utmost importance in dangerous environments such as nuclear, biological, and chemical. The equipment needs to possess a high level of agility, resilience, efficiency, and seamless integration with systems. Utilizing cutting-edge technology, such as face and text recognition, is crucial for precise identification. Security and compatibility are of utmost importance. Having equipment such as ELINT, SAR, and IR is crucial.

Dr Manvendra Singh, Scientist G, IRDE, DRDO spoke on Intelligence Gathering with EO Sensors for Today’s Missions.

Session 4: Maritime Surveillance, Research & Development

The session was chaired by Cmde Ashish Bhargava, Cmde Air Warfare & Flight Safety, Naval HQ. He emphasized the importance of maritime surveillance in the Indian context owing to the long coastline. He said that maritime surveillance was an amalgamation of a lot of platforms with sensors with the inherent challenge of transporting the data due to absence of terrestrial network.

Comdt Banshidhar Singh, Joint Dir Communications, Indian Coast Guard spoke on Surveillance against Aerial, Surface and Underwater Threats. He highlighted the importance of surveillance in the maritime domain for ensuring an appropriate response to any developing situation relating to maritime safety and security. He defined the objectives of maritime surveillance to holistically understand, anticipate and administer all events and actions related to the maritime domain that could impact the maritime security. He said that it includes and relies on maritime law enforcement, maritime pollution and marine environment control, disaster response, search and rescue, anti-poaching, anti- smuggling, anti-human trafficking and safeguarding countries’ trade and economic interests. So, the prime objective is to detect any suspicious or anomalous target that could subvert the national interest in the maritime zones. He acknowledged the need to upgrade capabilities by keeping in tune with the advancements in technologies and put forth some recommendations for the ICG which include adaptation of existing magnetron-based radars to solid-state radars, daylight CCD thermal imager with laser illumination, electro-optic system to HD thermal camera, CCD with short wave infrared technology to see through haze, fog, glass, and better ranges, and inclusion of satellite AIS for better coverage.

Cdr K Varun, Cdr AW, Naval HQ spoke on Integrating Assets for Maritime Surveillance. He talked about complexity of maritime surveillance of the IOR because of the amount of maritime traffic that transits this region which is further exacerbated by the thousands of fishing boats and the requirement of keeping an eye on the three domains of surface, sub-surface and air by the Indian Navy. He also mentioned the government’s stance on India being the ‘First Responder & Preferred Security Partner’ and the role being played by the Indian Navy currently in the Gulf of Aden. He spotlighted the importance of Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA) and its centrality to the information, decision and action cycle. He mentioned the various fixed & rotary wing and manned & unmanned platforms and the surveillance sensors in service with IN for building the MDA. He also covered the various surface and sub- surface platforms, sensors and weapons utilized by the IN towards the task. He threw some light on how all this data from the IN’s sensors and from other agencies including space is aggregated, correlated and disseminated by the Information Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC).

Maj Gen (Dr) Ashok Kumar, Director General CENJOWS gave the closing remarks, alluding to the rise of India as a leading economic power and the need for the defence forces to rise to the challenges towards which the three services are willing to state their needs in an open and upfront manner and there is much visible collaboration between the forces and the industry. He said that the defence forces are ready to hand-hold those who are willing to be partners in the growth of the defence forces and the nation.

Maj Gen Ravi Arora, Chief Editor, Indian Military Review, ended the seminar with a vote of thanks to the speakers, subject matter experts, sponsors, exhibitors, all attendees and CENJOWS for the success of the event.

The post EVENT REVIEW – Surveillance & Electro- optics India 2024 appeared first on IMR.

China has been taking advantage of huge Indian market to enhance its economic strength in the garb of peace and tranquillity but it has been working quietly and deliberately against the Indian national interests which became obvious in Apr-May 2020 wherein it carried out large scale transgressions in Eastern Ladakh which are still continuing.

The sacrifices by CO and 19-unit personnel during the Galwan clash are a watershed moment for Indian Defence Forces wherein the Chinese have betrayed India ‘once again’. This necessitates that the Indian masses understand the Chinese behavioural pattern as that has not emerged ‘overnight’. It is towards this that the book ‘China Betrays Again’ written by Maj Gen (Dr) Ashok Kumar, VSM (Retd) fills this gap to assist the readers to comprehend the multiple dynamics of Chinese expansionist agenda and as to why it behaves the way it behaves.

ALSO READ: China Fuelling An Asian NATO?

The Book also throws light on Galwan clash, multiple rounds of Corps commander level discussions, infrastructure development and implications for India & China due to continuing Stand Off. It also highlights as to how the Chinese have converted the ‘territorial issue’ into a ‘sovereignty issue’ by adopting its Land Boundary Law effective from 1 Jan 2022.

China is also aggressively changing/ bringing in new sovereignty markers by extended infrastructure development and establishment of the model villages all along the LAC which have to be actively responded by India with enhanced focus on the ‘vibrant villages.

The author has taken pains to elaborate the developments in China since 1911 including conflicts between ROC and PRC. The expansionist agenda and its physical manifestation has also been comprehensively covered. This will help in crystal gazing in its future behaviour.

The details of border disputes and LAC disputes have been comprehensively covered in the simplest language for reader to understand. The book also helps to understand the Chinese design of debt trapping in the other countries with specific details of Sri Lanka.

ALSO READ: Fujian – China’s Newest Type 03 Aircraft Carrier

The book also looks at multiple other issues connected with China whether it is BRI or CPEC. Chinese collusivity with Pakistan and its impact on the resolution of the Siachen glacier has also been comprehensively covered.

The reader will be able to get a clear sense of the Chinese activities in South China Sea as well as East China Sea besides its efforts to affect the freedom of navigation for the other countries. Its ambitions to integrate Taiwan have also been covered in detail.        

Prof Hoppymon Jacob has written the ‘Foreword’ of the book which comprehensively captures the essence of the content. The book has been published by ‘Sabre and Quill’ publishers containing 283 pages with cost of Rs 1295/- for hardcover edition. The book is available at Amazon, Sabre & Quill publishers and Book Mart distributors. Author signed copies can be obtained directly from the author.

The post Book Review: China Betrays Again appeared first on IMR.

With population of India touching 140 billion and having undergone a rapid and sustained economic expansion in the last 10 years, demand for energy in India is about to see a quantum 40 percent growth in the next ten years. Like many other developing countries of the world, India is also a net importer of energy. More than a quarter of primary energy needs of the country are being met through imports, mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. Biofuels, being a domestic and renewable source of energy, can significantly cut down India’s dependence on imported oil, can lessen the environmental degradation caused by the use of fossil fuels and is the best alternative option in securing the energy needs of the country.

India embarked upon the journey of production of bio-fuels nearly a decade ago in order to reduce its dependence on foreign oil and thus, improving her energy security situation. India is now amongst top producers of Jatropha oil and achieved 10% ethanol blending in 2022, quite ahead of the schedule, in its pursuit of a 20% blending target by 2025. 

Launch of the Global Bio-Fuel Alliance (GBA)

Headwinds in the area of sustainable development exist, still, Global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions continue to surge with biodiversity loss, climate change, drought, pollution, land degradation and desertification, threatening lives and livelihoods. In order to deal with this current phenomenon, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi along with the leaders of Singapore, Bangladesh, Italy, USA, Brazil, Argentina, Mauritius and UAE, launched the Global Biofuel Alliance on 9 September 2023, on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in New Delhi. The alliance is going to act as a central repository of knowledge and databank as well as an expert hub. GBA aims to be a catalyst platform, promoting global collaboration for the widespread adoption and advancement of biofuels.

What are Bio – Fuels?

 Any kind of a hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an organic matter (living or dead) in a short duration (days, weeks, or months), can be called a biofuel. Biofuels can be solid, liquid or gaseous in nature. Solids like Wood, dried plant material, manure, liquid like Bioethanol and Biodiesel and gaseous like Biogas can be used to replace or be used in addition to diesel, petrol or other fossil fuels for transport. They can also be used to produce heat and electricity and have widespread application.

First Generation Biofuels. These are produced from food sources such as starch, sugar, vegetable oil or animal fats using conventional technology. Some of the common first-generation biofuels include Biodiesel, Bioalcohols, Bioethers, Vegetable oil, Biogas etc. Though the process of conversion is easy but use of food sources in the production of biofuels creates an imbalance in food economy, which may lead to increased food prices and hunger.

Second Generation Biofuels. These are made from non-food crops or some portions of food crops that are not edible and are considered as wastes, like stems, husks, wood chips, fruit skins, peelings etc. Thermochemical reactions or biochemical conversion process is used for producing such fuels. Some of the examples include cellulose ethanol, biodiesel etc. These fuels may not have any effect on the food economy, however, their production is quite complicated.

Third Generation Biofuels. These are produced from some micro-organisms like algae, example Butanol. Micro-organisms like algae can be grown using water and land thought unsuitable for food production. One disadvantage is environmental pollution caused due to the use of fertilizers for production of such crops.

Fourth Generation Biofuels. In the production of such fuels, crops that are genetically engineered to consume high amounts of carbon are grown and harvested as biomass. The crops are thereafter converted into fuel using second generation techniques. The advantage is that it reduces carbon from the environment.

Felt Need

Indian Energy Scenario and Significance of Biofuels. India ranks sixth in energy demand accounting for 3.6% of total global energy demand in the world. While the energy demand is estimated to grow at 4.8% a year, a large part of India’s population, majority in the villages / rural areas, doesn’t have access to it. Most rural kitchens still use biomass fuels in their smoky kitchens.

In 2003-04, India, which is 70% dependent on imports for meeting her crude oil requirement, spent 18.36 billion dollars (Rs 84,236 cores) on the import of more than 90 million tons of crude oil. It is predicted that if the country continues at this rate, 5.6 million barrels of oil /day will be consumed by 2030 out of which, more than 94% will be met through oil imports.

Securing of long-term supply of energy not only requires current fuel resources to be used as economically as possible but also diversification of energy sources used in this fuel system. In the years to come, we have to reach a stage in our development, where our dependence on fossil fuels should reach the minimum level for energy generation. This is the reason why Biofuels are recognized major players for ensuring energy security in the future of our country.

ALSO READ : India is assembling an ace group of cyber sleuths to guard its energy grids

Suitability of India for Bio Fuels Production

Fortunately, there is large proportion of degraded forestland and unused public land and fallow lands of farmers where non-edible oil seeds can be grown. There are many of the non-edible species which are rich in oil and at the same time, can be easily grown in the country. Further, India has large arable land and good climatic conditions with adequate rainfall in the large part of the area to account for large biomass production each year.

Some promising tree species were evaluated and it was found that there were a number of them such as Jatropha Curcas and Pongamia Pinnatta which can be very suitable for our conditions. Jatropha Curcas, in specific, has been found most suitable for the purpose.

One hectare land under Jatropha plantation with about 4400 plants per hectare under rain fed conditions can produce about 1500 litres of oil. It is estimated that about three million hectares plantation is required in order to produce oil for 10% replacement of petrodiesel which is quite substantial.

Biofuel Policy of India

History of Biofuel. India initiated its biofuel programme more than a decade back and launched many policy measures to promote biofuels ever since. India launched its “Ethanol Blending Programme” in 2002, which mandated 5% blending of ethanol (E5) with petrol in four Union Territories and nine States with effect from January 2003. The Planning Commission of India constituted a Committee on Development of Biofuels in July 2002. The report released in 2003 of the Committee recommended India to progressively move towards higher targets in blending of biofuels which include strengthening of the ethanol blending programme.

The 5% blending mandate in the case of ethanol could not be achieved due to shortage of bioethanol supply. In October 2004, the mandate was amended “requiring E5 blends only when adequate ethanol supplies were available”. In 2006, the 5% blending mandate was extended to cover 20 States and 8 Union Territories.

Again, this target could not be achieved due to shortage of bioethanol supply. In September 2008, the Union Cabinet set a target of 5% blending all across the country. The Planning Commission report of year 2003 recommended launching a National Mission on Biodiesel to be based on non-edible oil and identified Jatropha Curcas as the most suitable tree-borne oilseed for this biodiesel production. One aim of the Mission was to gradually raise the blending target to 20% by the year 2012. The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, in October 2005, announced a biodiesel purchase policy, which required Oil Marketing Companies (OMC) to procure biodiesel for blending with diesel with effect from January 2006. In order to ailing ethanol and biodiesel blending programs, India’s National Biofuel Policy was approved by the Government of India in December 2009.

National Biofuel Policy. The goal of the Policy is to ensure availability of biofuels in the market, thereby, increasing their blending percentage. It aims at ensuring the ready availability of biofuels in the market to meet demand and brought out an indicative target of 20% blending of biofuels, for bio-diesel and bio-ethanol both, by 2017. While the target for bio-ethanol was supposed to be mandatory, the blending target for biodiesel was intended to be recommendatory. Salient features of the biofuel policy include:

1. Biofuels to be based solely on non-food crops to be raised on degraded or wastelands that were found to be unsuitable for agriculture, thereby, avoiding a possible fuel vs. food security conflict.

2. Cultivation of non-edible oil seeds for production of bio-diesel to be promoted through a Minimum Support Price.

3. Plantations that provide the feedstock for biodiesel and bio-ethanol also to be supported through a Minimum Support Price.

4. Research, development and demonstration be supported to cover varied aspects of feedstock production and processing of biofuels which also include development of second-generation biofuels. The Policy document also includes interventions and enabling mechanisms with respect to plantations, processing, distribution and marketing, financing, financial and fiscal incentives and research and development.

G20 Bio-fuel Alliance

Progress in Other G20 Countries. The United States Inflation Reduction Act makes USD 9.4 billion available for biofuels which is quite substantial. Some other G20 countries and regions making notable progress to boost biofuels include:

•             Brazil is planning to increase biodiesel blending to 15% by 2026 which is up from 10% in 2022. 

•             Canada is implementing its Clean Fuel Regulations in 2023, which require a 13% cut in GHG emissions intensity for transport fuels by 2030. 

•             The European Union is closing on to its agreement on updated Renewable Energy Directive (RED III) which would double the requirements for renewables content in transportation fuels, including biofuels, compared to existing targets.

•             Singapore has supplied about 70,000 tonnes of bio-fuels to ocean-going vessels in 2022. Singapore Airlines is also using sustainable blended aviation fuel.

•             The Argentina biodiesel industry is based mainly on the use of soybean as feedstock. There are 31 companies in the country currently producing biodiesel with an estimated annual production capacity of over 745 million litres.

Gains for India

G20 initiative was launched to promote an alliance of governments, international organizations and industries to promote adoption of bio-fuels. Global bio-fuel alliance mirrors the International Solar Alliance which was launched in 2015 by India and 120 signatory countries in Paris.

The Bio-fuel alliance is a win-win situation for ‘Atamnirbhar Bharat’. It will help to create jobs, reduce pollution and to top it all, make India a leader in the production and use of Bio-fuels. The alliance is oriented towards India’s goal of becoming a carbon-neutral country by 2070. The alliance will fast-track India’s existing Bio-fuels programs like Sustainable Alternative towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) and ‘Gobardhan’ scheme, which will help farmers in enhancing their income, create jobs and boost overall growth of Indian ecosystem.

Way Forward

Despite laying a lot of emphasis on Bio-fuels, substantial ground still needs to be covered by India. In order to achieve its laid down aim, India needs to rev up its model of Bio-fuels which requires making policy changes, adopting technological advancements and collaboration with other countries.

Quality Check. National Policy on Biofuels (NPB) does not permit private biofuel manufacturers to market directly. The responsibility for storage, distribution and marketing of Biofuels is vested in OMCs. Biodiesel manufacturers must send their biodiesel to OMC approved collection centers where the standard of quality is verified. Price and minimum quality standards are already laid out in the NPB.

Government Support. Biofuels need to be backed by the government in many different ways, including subsidies, blending mandates or targets, reduced import duties, tax exemptions and credits, support for R&D and direct involvement in biofuel production, as well as other incentives to encourage local biofuel production and use. Biofuel blend mandates require specific quantity of biodiesel, ethanol and advanced biofuels to be mixed with petroleum-based transportation fuels and needs to be vigorously executed.

Innovation. An innovation gap exists in converting woody and grassy biomass (e.g. agricultural and forestry residues) to liquid biofuels. For example, via thermochemical routes such as biomass gasification followed by FT synthesis (bio-FT), hydrothermal liquefaction and fast pyrolysis with upgrading. While bio-FT is presently at the demonstration phase, many commercial-scale projects are currently in the pipeline, mostly in the United States and also in Europe and Japan. G20 alliance will prove beneficial here, wherein, such exchange of ideas and innovations can now take place.

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Technology Deployment. The vast quantity of biofuel production currently uses so-called conventional feedstocks such as corn, sugar cane and soybeans. However, extending biofuel production to advanced feedstocks is critical to ensuring minimal impact on food prices, land-use and other environmental factors while tripling biofuels production.

Used cooking oil and waste animal fats provide most of the non-food crop feedstocks for biofuel production currently. Given that these feedstocks are limited, new technologies are required to be commercialised to expand non-food crop biofuel production. Toxicological study should also be initiated in India through concerned R & D centers, as it is a pre-requisite for the introduction of any fuel. 

Supporting Infra. Capturing CO2 from biofuels is cheaper as compared to other bioenergy and carbon capture processes. Many of the biofuel production pathways emit CO2 as an inherent part of their process. Such routes include ethanol fermentation (both cellulosic and crop-based) and bio-FT. The high concentration of CO2 essentially means that the cost of capturing the CO2 is low, since no additional purification will be required apart from dehydration. Once the CO2 is captured, it requires to be compressed and transported via a pipeline, truck or ship to a storage site or be used in some way, for which suitable infrastructure needs to be created.

Policy. Biofuels are facing challenges of their own, prompting differing policy responses. Overall, close to 80 countries have policies that support biofuel demand. Nearly 60% of biofuel demand is observed in advanced economies and only 40% in emerging economies. Biofuel demand though, is expected to increase by 11% to 2024, with two-thirds of growth taking place in emerging economies. 

However, while biofuels offer energy security advantages, their prices climbed quicker than those of gasoline and diesel in many of the countries. In order to mitigate increase in transport fuel costs, Brazil, Sweden and Finland delayed their planned increase to biofuel blending obligations in 2022.

Only Brazil and Indonesia are accelerating deployment by 2024. India also needs to act on identical lines and bring in changes in its NBP. It may lead to hike in transport prices in the near future but will be immensely beneficial in the long run.

Investment. Investment in liquid biofuels saw a marked hike in 2022, notably in renewable diesel Global transport biofuel, wherein, capacity was enhanced by 7% in 2022, its largest annual increase in over a decade. Biorefineries focused on renewable diesel and contributed towards the bulk of the growth, thanks to attractive policies in the United States and Europe, while ethanol capacity saw notable increases in Brazil, Indonesia, India and China.

Several large companies, world over, are also making forays into sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). In the European Union alone there are more than 30 advanced biorefinery projects in operation and  further 10 are slated for operations before 2025. The United States is seen as a leader in this sector, attributed to generous fiscal incentives, an estimated USD 9.4 billion in tax credits and financial support for new production capacity and biofuel infrastructure.

International Collaboration. International collaboration is inescapable in order to realise the potential of biofuels. International collaboration can accelerate biofuel deployment by developing and sharing best practices, policy and deployment, co-ordinating research and promoting common sustainability standards. Current efforts include: 

•             The Biofuture Platform Initiative. A 22-country initiative to promote an advanced low-carbon bioeconomy that is innovative and scalable, sustainable, established under the Clean Energy Ministerial in 2021. It aims at promoting consensus on biomass sustainability, enabling financing, promoting best practices and promoting international co-operation. 

•             IEA Bioenergy. A Technology Collaboration Program (TCP) which was established in 1978 in order to facilitate co-operation and exchange of information between countries that have national programs in bioenergy R&D and deployment. It provides leading analysis on market deployment, bioenergy technology development, demonstration, sustainability and policy frameworks.

•             Clean Skies for Tomorrow Coalition. An industry-led coalition working to promote the commercial sale of viable, low-emission SAF, of which biojet kerosene is one type, for broad adoption by industry by 2030.

•             Global Bioenergy Partnership. An initiative that focuses on developing countries to support a wide range of activities including national and regional policy making and supporting sustainable practices. This also includes the development and implementation of 24 sustainability indicators. 

An inter-play between G20 alliance and these international collaborations which have already provided a headstart to the Bio fuel sector, needs to evolve so that concerted results can be achieved.

Private Sector Participation. Refiners are now increasing their footprints into the biofuels supply chain. Refiners traditionally focused on oil and gas refining and were involved in half of planned capacity additions, including co‐processing facilities, facility conversion or building new facilities. Refiners, such as Total Energies, Eni, Neste and Valero, currently own maximum of operating capacity for renewable diesel and they also have a sizeable share of planned capacity. These refiners need to be dovetailed into own overall design and given incentives, so as to provide much needed fillip to the Bio- Gas sector.

Conclusion        

Development of a self-reliant community to manage the natural system is an important element of sustainable development. Here lays the importance of biofuels as a renewable and domestic energy supply. While bioethanol and biodiesel can be seen as future fuels in the transport sector, biogas and biomass technologies can prove their utility in rural India. However, commercialisation of these fuels on a large scale needs technological innovation of the highest order supported by proper policy orientation.

Government of India seems keen to give a head start to all the biofuels programs. A concerted effort from both, the government and private parties, towards a coherent technological and policy initiative has the potential to lead India to meet its energy requirements substantially through biofuels materializing the ‘Swadeshi’ vision of Mahatma Gandhi, thereby, creating revolutionary changes in our nation’s development. New Delhi G20 summit has laid the foundation for this mammoth endeavor, however, it needs to be pursued vigorously in upcoming G20 summits in Brazil in 2024, in South Africa in 2025 and the United States in 2026 at the beginning of the next cycle.

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In the visionary words of the Indian Prime Minister spoken from the ramparts of Red Fort on 15 Aug 2021, ‘Not only will Green Hydrogen be the basis of green growth through green jobs but it will also set an example for the world towards green energy transition.’ This resounding statement from the highest echelons of Indian leadership underscores the nation’s commitment to embrace green hydrogen as a transformative energy source. In a world grappling with environmental challenges and seeking sustainable energy solutions, green hydrogen emerges as a beacon of hope and innovation. The Indian National Green Hydrogen Mission, launched in Jan 2023 aims to make India energy independent, decarbonise major economic sectors and turn nation into a global hub to produce, utilize export Green Hydrogen and its derivatives. In a world grappling with environmental challenges and seeking sustainable energy solutions, green hydrogen emerges as a beacon of hope and innovation.

What is Green Hydrogen and why is it important?

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. However, it does not exist in the earth’s atmosphere and is required to be produced through artificial means. Green Hydrogen specifically relates to hydrogen production methods using only renewable energy.  Operating at scale, Green Hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels could play a central role in decarbonization of the global energy system and energy transition.

One of its key advantages of Hydrogen is that it is the perfect complement to renewable sources like wind, solar and hydel owing to its capability to generate on-demand power when output from renewable sources cannot match demand. Hydrogen is the only non-carbon fuel which can potentially decarbonize sectors like industries, mobility and power generation. Hydrogen could help decarbonize hard-to-electrify heavy mobility sectors like shipping, railways, heavy trucks and buses. The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Global Hydrogen Review 2022 notes positive signs of progress in this field recently, as the first fleet of trains powered by hydrogen fuel cells began operating in Germany. India has already launched Hydrogen Fuel Cell buses in Delhi and will be rolling out its first domestically designed and built hydrogen-powered train by December 2023. Today, most of the hydrogen is used by refining and chemical industry. Demand for industrial use has tripled since 1975 and its potential as an energy transition fuel could see demand grow exponentially.

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Advancements in Green Hydrogen Technologies- Global Scan

The global quest for clean energy is disrupting the fossil fuel-based world order. Hydrogen could account for up to 12% of global energy use by 2050, leading to the rise of new energy superpowers. But who are the frontrunners in the race to adopt and scale up green hydrogen and other low-carbon fuels affecting political and economic changes in the energy landscape. A report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), called ‘Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation: The Hydrogen Factor’ lists leaders in developing policy initiatives, technology and export facilities to promote green hydrogen value chains – all of which are needed if the world is to decarbonize sectors like steel making, shipping and transportation.

(a)          China. China consumes and produces more hydrogen than any other country – its current annual usage is more than 24 million tons. Most of the country’s production is ‘grey’ hydrogen, generated using fossil fuels like coal, however, more than 30 green hydrogen projects have been setup since 2019. China announced first hydrogen roadmap in 2016. It has the world’s third-largest fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) fleet and is a pioneer in developing fuel cell trucks and buses. China’s five-year economic plan recognizes hydrogen as one of the six industries of the future.

(b)          The European Union. Having issued its National Hydrogen Strategy in 2020, the EU has recognized hydrogen as a key technology for achieving policy goals such as the ‘European Green Deal’. The bloc’s strategy is heavily focused on emissions-free green hydrogen, with a target to install 40 gigawatts of renewable hydrogen electrolyzer capacity by 2030. However, with Europe’s green hydrogen capacity set to reach just 2.7 gigawatts by 2025, achieving such an ambitious goal will be a challenge. The ‘European Clean Hydrogen Alliance’ was launched to support investment and large-scale deployment of Green hydrogen projects as the EU aims to become the industrial leader in Green Hydrogen. Within the bloc, different member states look set to become large-scale hydrogen importers, exporters or transit hubs.

(c)           Japan. In 2017, Japan became the first country to formulate a National Hydrogen Strategy in order to become the world’s first ‘hydrogen society’ by adopting the fuel across all sectors. The country lacks the natural resources needed to deploy sufficient levels of wind or solar to generate green hydrogen at scale, therefore developing long term supply agreements to import Green Hydrogen from overseas. Alongside government investment in hydrogen and fuel cell technologies totaling $670 million in 2020, policymakers have set mobility targets of 800,000 FCEVs and 900 hydrogen refueling stations by 2030.

(d)          South Korea. South Korea’s 2019 Hydrogen roadmap hailed Green hydrogen as a key driver of economic growth and job creation. The nation has its sights set on becoming a global leader in producing and deploying FCEVs and large-scale stationary fuel cells for hydrogen power generation. Its ‘Green New Deal’ contains an ambitious target of deploying 200,000 FCEVs by 2025.  Last year, South Korea passed the Economic Promotion and Safety Control of Hydrogen Act- the world’s first law aimed at promoting hydrogen vehicles, charging stations and fuel cells. Plans are in place for hydrogen to provide 10% of the energy needs of its cities, counties and towns by 2030, with its share rising to 30% by 2040 before it becomes the country’s largest single energy carrier by mid-century.

(e)          The United States.  The US is the world’s second largest producer and consumer of hydrogen after China, accounting for 13% of global demand. States such as California supported the country’s FCEV market growth for more than a decade with initiatives like the ‘Clean Vehicle Rebate Program’. The US led the world in this field until 2020. When the government passed law- ‘Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021’. It contained a $9.5 billion budget to boost Green hydrogen development. This was followed by the launch of the government’s Hydrogen Earthshot program aimed at bringing down the cost of Green Hydrogen to $1 per 1 kilogram in 1 decade.

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Why Green Hydrogen in India’s Energy Porfolio?

Green hydrogen’s emergence as the fuel of the future for India is rooted in a multitude of reasons and compelling arguments that make it an indispensable component of the nation’s energy landscape as discussed hereinunder:-

(a)          Abundant Renewable Resources. India is blessed with abundant solar and wind resources, making it well-suited for green hydrogen production. Harnessing these renewable energy sources through electrolysis allows India to produce hydrogen with minimal environmental impact, positioning the nation as a global leader in sustainable energy production.

(b)          Decarbonisation Imperative. India, like the rest of the world, faces the pressing need to reduce carbon emissions to combat climate change. Green hydrogen provides a pathway to decarbonize various sectors.

(c)           Energy Storage and Grid Balancing. Green hydrogen offers a unique solution to the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources. Excess electricity generated during peak periods can be used for electrolysis to produce hydrogen, which can then be stored and used during periods of high demand or low renewable energy generation. This enhances grid stability and energy security.

(d)      Versatility and End-Use Flexibility. Green hydrogen is remarkably versatile. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles, as a feedstock in industrial processes, or to generate electricity through fuel cells. This versatility allows India to address multiple energy needs simultaneously, reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels in various sectors.

(e)     Technological Advancements. Advancements in green hydrogen production technologies, including electrolysers and hydrogen storage solutions, have made the process more efficient and cost-effective. As technology continues to improve, the economic viability of green hydrogen becomes increasingly attractive.

(f)      Economic Growth and Job Creation. Investing in the green hydrogen sector can stimulate economic growth and job creation. The development of a robust hydrogen ecosystem, from production to infrastructure deployment, will create a multitude of employment opportunities fostering economic prosperity.

(g)    International Collaboration and Trade. Green hydrogen presents opportunities for international collaboration and trade. India can export green hydrogen and related technologies to other nations, enhancing its standing in the global energy market and fostering diplomatic ties.

Green Hydrogen’s Role in Achieving India’s Energy Goals

Green hydrogen, produced through the process of electrolysis using renewable energy sources like wind and solar power is hailed as the fuel of the future for several compelling reasons. Firstly, it is a clean and sustainable energy carrier, emitting only water vapours when burned or used in fuel cells, thus combating greenhouse gas emissions and addressing climate change. Secondly, it can be efficiently stored and transported, offering flexibility in energy distribution. Thirdly, it is incredibly versatile and can be used across various sectors, including transportation, industry and power generation. For India, it’s a strategic tool to achieve energy security, energy independence by 2047 and net-zero emissions by 2070.

(a)          Energy Security. As India’s growth story unfolds, energy requirement is likely to grow by at least 25% by 2030. India is currently importing over 40% of its primary energy requirement, worth over USD 90 billion every year. This necessitates diversification of National energy portfolio towards green hydrogen technologies to progressively reduce share of imported fossil fuels. India, by harnessing abundant renewable energy resources can produce green hydrogen domestically, ensuring a stable and secure energy supply.

(b)          Energy Independence by 2047. India’s aspiration to attain energy independence by its centenary in 2047, the 100th year of independence, is an ambitious yet achievable goal. Green hydrogen holds the key to this aspiration by offering a clean, indigenous energy source that can replace fossil fuels in various sectors. By investing in green hydrogen infrastructure and technology, India can reduce its reliance on imported fossil fuels and move closer to energy independence.

(c)           Net Zero by 2070. India’s commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 is a testament to its dedication to combating climate change. Green hydrogen is a crucial enabler in this journey. When used as a clean fuel or feedstock, green hydrogen can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions across sectors, such as transportation, industry and power generation. Its carbon-neutral nature aligns perfectly with the goal of eliminating net emissions. Carbon-free steel, ammonia, fuel cell based power generation and hydrogen based transportation systems will assist in reduction of fossil fuel based carbon emissions.

Micro Grid Power Plants for Offgrid Forward Locations of Indian Army

MoU between Indian Army and National Thermal Power Corporation Renewable Energy Limited (NTPC REL). In consonance with the National Green hydrogen Mission, on 21 Mar 2023, Indian Army became first Government entity to ink an MoU with NTPC REL for installation of Green Hydrogen based Micro Grid Power Plants at off grid forward locations along Northern Borders. The plants will provide round the clock clean power supply to the troops deployed in inhospitable terrain, extreme climatic conditions higher Himalayas. The progressive step will reduce Indian Army’s dependence on power being generated by fossil fuel fired Generators.

Pilot Project at Chushul. The 200 KW pilot project at Chushul will be the first operational green hydrogen-based power plant in India. NTPC REL will develop the project on Build, Own and Operate (BOO) model, wherein investment, construction, operation and maintenance post commissioning will be the responsibility of NTPC REL and Indian Army will provide land on 25 on lease for 25 years and pay the tariff as per Power Purchase Agreement. NTPC REL has conceptualized and designed the pilot project and has completed the tendering formalities. Work on site is likely to commence by December 2023.

Design & Configuration. The plant has been designed on the basic concept of producing power by installing Solar Photovoltaic panels to capture solar energy and directly supply the same to consumer through a micro grid during solar hours. Also, a part of solar energy will be used to run electrolysers which will break water into hydrogen and oxygen and hydrogen will be compressed and stored in cylinders. The stored hydrogen will be used to run fuel cells which will provide power during non-solar hours. Besides, a four-hour battery backup will be provided though a Battery Energy storage system, which will also cater to intermittency and fluctuations in solar energy required to power electrlysers.  The layout of the pilot project is given as under:-                       

(a)          Solar Plant. The solar plant will comprise of a Solar PV modules for a DC capacity of 3200 kW. The power will be evacuated from Solar plant directly into local AC grid at 415 V during solar hours. The electrolysers and BESS would be fed by DC power from the solar plant through a unique system of DC-DC conversion to save on energy losses. Metering, protection and Energy Management System (EMS) will be installed for safe and smooth operations

(b)          Hydrogen Plant. Hydrogen generation of 160 kg/day with 1000 kW of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) type electrolyser will be installed. Electrolysers are envisaged to interface directly with DC grid through DC/DC converter. Hydrogen compression system will be installed to the required pressure of 250 bar for storage. Hydrogen storage facility will have at least 200 kg of usable hydrogen required for fuel cell in a Type-IV hydrogen gas cylinders. Heat exchangers will be installed in closed loop system.

(c)           Battery Energy Storage System (BESS). BESS for the capacity of 300KW/1200KWHr will be installed for storing of un-utilised/surplus power from solar plant by charging the battery system. Power to be extracted or discharged from the battery to existing load (200KW) at any time. BESS will support Hydrogen Plant and load during the fluctuation in solar plant due to weather conditions. BESS will cater to the power requirement of emergency load (max 80 kW) for one hour and lighting load for three hours of operation. It shall have battery and thermal management system for its effective operation. BESS is envisaged to interface directly with DC grid through DC/DC converter and also operate in standalone mode as well as in tandem operation with local grid comprising Solar PV & Fuel Cell. BESS discharging energy capacity at the end of 10 Years shall be 90% of rated energy capacity with 90% annual utilization factor.

(d)          Fuel Cell System. Electrical power to be generated for Net capacity of 200 KW using a PEM type Fuel Cell. Fuel Cell will interface directly with DC grid through DC/DC converter. Fuel Cell shall operate in standalone mode as well as in tandem operation with local grid comprising Solar PV & BESS. Fuel Cell has been designed to operate based on the load condition and maintain the power quality in the system.

Challenges in Making India a Global Green Hydrogen Hub

While the future of green hydrogen is promising, India faces several challenges on its path to becoming a global green hydrogen hub. These challenges include the following:-

(a)          High production costs.

(b)          The need for significant infrastructure development for creation of hydrogen Eco-system.

(c)           Intermittency issues with renewable energy sources.

(d)          Need for indigenization and mass production of hydrogen technologies.

(e)          Collaboration between public and private sectors along with incentive based supportive policies will be crucial in overcoming these challenges.

Conclusion

Green Hydrogen represents an extraordinary opportunity for India and the world to transition towards a sustainable, low-carbon future. With its clean and versatile nature, it has the potential to address climate change, enhance energy security and drive economic growth. Despite the existing challenges, the future of green hydrogen is filled with optimism, driven by innovation and a shared commitment to a greener and more sustainable world.

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A wide range of niche technologies are being inducted to enhance long range precision attack capabilities. Loitering munitions in land and sea-based versions are being inducted to enhance the targeting capabilities. Additionally, containerised missile systems are being inducted to enhance the operational capability and to augment flexibility in operations.

The Navy has transformed from a ‘Buyers Navy’ into a ‘Builders Navy’, with aircraft carrier, destroyers, stealth frigates, corvettes, submarines and other war vessels being constructed in our country. Today, of the 66 ships under construction 64 are being built in India. Further, approvals have been given for 24 ships and submarines that are all planned to be constructed in Indian Shipyards. At present, IN has achieved approximately 90% indigenisation in the float segment, 60% in the move segment, and 50% in the fight segment. Indian Navy is committed to becoming a fully Aatmanirbhar Navy by 2047.

A number of ships and submarines have been commissioned in 2023.

INS Vagir, fifth Submarine of Kalvari class, was commissioned on January 23, 2023.

INS Tarmugli returned by the Govt of Maldives was re-commissioned after refit on December 14, 2023.

INS Imphal, the third stealth ship of Project-15B was commissioned on 26 December 2023.

Sandhayak (Yard 3025), the first of the four Survey Vessel (Large) ships was delivered to Indian Navy by GRSE on December 4, 2023.

The third GRSE ship of Project P17A Frigates, Vindhyagiri (Yard 3024), was launched on Aug 17, 2023 at GRSE.

The fourth ship of Survey Vessel Large, i.e. Sanshodhak (Yard 3028) was launched on June 13, 2023 at L&T Shipyard.

Two ASW Shallow Water Craft (ASW SWC) namely Androth (Yard 3035) and Anjadip (Yard 3030) were launched on March 21 and June 13, 2023 respectively at GRSE.

Three more ASW SWC namely Mahe (Yard 523), Malvan (Yard 524) and Magrol (Yard 525) were concurrently launched on November 30, 2023 at CSL, Kochi.

The last of the seven P17A ships, i.e. Mahendragiri (Yard 12654) was launched on September 1, 2023 at MDL, Mumbai.

1st Diving Support Craft A-20 (Yard-325) was launched on August 31, 2023 at Titagarh Rail Systems Ltd, Kolkata.

INS Vikrant completed Initial Operational Clearance (IOC) on May 31, 2023. With the IOC, the ship has proven the Aviation Facilities Complex, achieved day and night landing of MiG-29K, completed landing trials of all helicopters in the Naval inventory.

Atmanirbharta in Defence is having a profound affect on the operational efficiency of the Indian Navy. During 2023 alone, a number of approvals were given by the Defence Acquisition Council (DAC). These included:

Medium-Range Anti-Ship Missiles for surface platforms in November 2023.

Next Generation Survey Vessels and avionic upgradation of Dornier aircraft in September 2023.

26 Rafale-Marine aircraft along with associated ancillary equipment, weapons, simulator, spares, documentation, crew training and logistic support in July 2023.

15 MQ-9B Sea Guardian High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAs) in June 2023.

Ship-launched BrahMos missiles and Utility Helicopters-Maritime in March 2023

Brahmos Launcher and Fire Control System for the Shivalik class of ships and Next Generation Missile Vessels in January 2023.

The Ministry of Defence signed contracts with a number of companies to strengthen the capabilities of the Indian Navy. Among them were:

13 Lynx-U2 Fire Control Systems from Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).

Three Cadet Training Ships from Larsen & Toubro Limited (L&T).

11 Next Generation Offshore Patrol Vessels and six Next Generation Missile Vessels from different Indian shipyards.

Five Fleet Support Ships (FSS) from Hindustan Shipyard Limited.

16 Upgraded Super Rapid Gun Mount (SRGM) anti-missile/anti-aircraft point defence weapon system from Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited.

Medium Refit with Life Certification of Sub-Surface Killer Class of Submarine ‘INS Shankush’ with Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders.

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